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L. L. LANGSTROTH. 

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LANGSTROTH 



ON THE 



Hive and Honey Bee 



REVISED, ENLARGED, AND 
COMPLETED BY 

Chas. Dadant and Son 




PUBLISHED BY CHAS. DADANT & SON, 
HAMILTON, HANCOCK COUNTY, ILLINOIS, U. S. A. 

1889. 



COPYRIGHTED, 1888, BY 

CHAS. DADANT & SON 



ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 



PREFACE. 



By his invention of the most practical movable-frame 
hive, and by his book, "The Hive and Honey-Bee", — a 
book as attractive as a novel, — Mr. Langstroth has laid 
the foundation of American Apiculture, whose methods 
and implements have become popular throughout the world. 

The re-writing of the "Hive and Honey-Bee" was en- 
trusted to us, in 1885, by Mr. Langstroth, as his feeble 
health rendered him unable to attend to it since its last re- 
vision in 1859. 

In this difficult work, which demanded a review of the 
progress accomplished in the past thirty years, we have had 
to introduce more new matter than we had anticipated. 
This will probably please the Apiarists who have already 
read former editions, and who have been waiting for this 
long-promised revision. Yet, we have retained as much as 
possible of Mr. Langstroth's writings, and all who are con- 
versant with his style will readily recognize his masterly 
pen. 

Our thanks are due to Mr. C. F. Muth, of Cincinnati, for 
the enthusiastic interest which he has taken in this book,* 
and to the able teacher and writer, Miss Favard, of Keokuk, 
for her criticism of the literary part of the work. 

As bee-keeping, like all other sciences, is but an accumu- 
lation of former discoveries, we have borrowed much from 
all sides, but we have tried to give due credit to all. Some 
of the engravings given are not original with the works 



II PREFACE. 

from which we take them. Those of Girard, for instance, 
are reduced copies of the beautiful chromos of Clerici, after 
the microscopic studies of Count G. Barbo, of Milan. Text- 
books are never entirely free from compilations of this kind. 
Having spared neither time nor expense to produce a 
book worthy of the father of American Apiculture, we hope 
that our work will be favorably received and will prove of 
some use in helping progress. 



THE REVISERS. 



ISecembee, 1888 



I 



BIOGRAPHY OF L. L. LANGSTROTH. 



Lorenzo Lorain Langstroth, the "father of American 
Apiculture," was born in the city of Philadelphia, December 
25, 1810. He early showed unusual interest in insect life. 
His parents were intelligent and in comfortable circum- 
stances, but they were not pleased to see him " waste so 
much time " in digging holes in the gravel walks, filling them 
with crumbs of bread and dead flies, to watch the curious 
habits of the ants. No books of any kind on natural history 
were put into his hands, but, on the contrary, much was said 
to discourage his " strange notions." Still he persisted in 
his observations, and gave to them much of the time that 
his playmates spent in sport. 

In 1827, he entered Yale College, graduating in 1831. 
His father's means having failed, he supported himself by 
teaching, while pursuing his theological studies. After serv- 
ing as mathematical tutor in Yale College for nearly two 
years, he was ordained Pastor of a Congregational church 
in Andover, Massachusetts, in May, 1836, and was married 
in August of that yearto Miss A. M. Tucker of New Haven. 

Strange to say, notwithstanding his passion in early life 
for studying the habits of insects, he took no interest in 
such pursuits during his college life. In 1837, the sight of 
a glass vessel filled with beautiful comb honey, on the table 
of a friend, led him to visit the attic where the bees were 
kept. This revived all his enthusiasm, and before he went 
home he purchased two colonies of bees in old box hives. 
in 



IV BIOGRAPHY OF L. L. LANGSTROTH. 

The only literary knowledge which he then had of bee-culture 
was gleaned from the Latin writings of Virgil, and from a 
modern writer, " who was somewhat skeptical as to the exist- 
ence of a queen-bee." 

In 1839, Mr. Langstroth removed to Greenfield, Massachu- 
setts. His health was much impaired, and he had resigned 
his pastorate. Increasing very gradually the number of his 
colonies, he sought information on all sides. The "Let- 
ters of Huber " and the work of Dr. Bevan on the honey 
bee (London, 1838), fell into his hands and gave him an 
introduction to the vast literature of bee-keeping. 

In 1848, having removed to Philadelphia, Mr. Langstroth, 
with the help of his wife, began to experiment with hives of 
different forms, but made no special improvements in them 
until 1851, when he devised the movable frame hive, used at 
the present day in preference to all others. This is re- 
corded in his journal, under the date of October 30, 1851, 
with the following remarks : " The use of these frames will, 
I am persuaded, give a new impetus to the easy and profit- 
able management of bees." 

This invention, which gave him perfect control over all 
the combs of the hive, enabled him afterwards to make 
many remarks and incidental discoveries, the most of which 
he recorded in his book, on the habits and the natural his- 
tory, of the honey-bee. The first edition of the work was 
published in 1852, and in its preparation he was greatly 
assisted by his accomplished wife. A revised edition was 
published in 1857, another in 1859, and large editions, 
without further revisions, have since been published. 

In January, 1852, Mr. Langstroth applied for a patent on 
his invention. This was granted him ; but he was deprived 
of all the profits of this valuable discovery, by infringe- 
ments and subsequent law-suits, which impoverished him 
and gave him trouble for years ; though no doubt remains 
now in the mind of airy one, as to the originality and prior- 
ity of his discoveries. 



BIOGRAPHY OF L. L. LANGSTROTH. V 

From the very beginning, his hive was adopted by such 
men as Quinby, Grimm and others, while the inventions of 
Munn and Debeauvoys are now buried in oblivion. 

Removing to Oxford, Ohio, in 1858, Mr. Langstroth, with 
the help of his son, engaged in the propagation of the 
Italian bee. From his large apiary he sold in one season 
$2,000 worth of Italian queens. This amount looks small 
at the present stage of bee-keeping, but it was enormous at 
a time when so few people were interested in it. 

The death of his only son, and repeated attacks of a 
serious head trouble, together with physical infirmities 
caused by a railroad accident, compelled Mr. Langstroth to 
abandon extensive bee-culture in 1874 ; but he has always, 
since then, kept a few colonies on which to experiment. 

Mr. Langstroth is now " venerated" by American bee- 
keepers, who are aware of the great debt due him by the 
fraternity. He is to them what Dzierzon* is to German 
Apiarists. When his health permits him to attend one of the 
meetings of the North American Bee-Keepers' Society, the 
leaders of Apiculture feel proud and happy to see and to 
hear him. 

Mr. Langstroth is an eminent scholar. His bee library is 
one of the most extensive in the world. He learned French 
without a teacher, simply through his knowledge of Latin, 
for the sole purpose of reading the many valuable works on 
bees, in the French language. He is a pleasant and elo- 
quent speaker. His writings are praised by all, and we can 
not close his biography better than by quoting an able 
writer, who called him the " Huber of America." 



* Pronounce Tseertsone. 



Table of Contents 

BY PARAGRAPHS. 



Chapter I— Physiology of the Honey-Bee 

1. General Ekmakks. 2. The Honey-bee. 3. The Hire, 4. The three 
kinds of inhabitants. 

General Characteristics. — 5. The skeleton. 6. The frame of their 
bodies 7. Hairs. 8. The three sections of the body. 9. Eyes. 
10. Their structure. 11. Comparison. 12. Use of the small eyes. 
13. Why so many facets? 14. Help in finding their way back. 15, 
16. Colors as guides. 17, 18. Color not their only guide. 19. The 
antennae. 20. Our gratitude to Huber and his servant Burnens. 21 . His 
wife. 22. He was blind. 23. His experiments on the antennas. 24. Can 
bees perceive sounds ? 25. Where is their hearing located ? 26. Where 
are their smelling organs located ? 27. The wonders of the microscope. 
28. Number of atoms in a pin head. 29. Smelling organs. 30. Mar- 
velous power of smell. 31. Smelling blossoms a mile away. 32, 33, 
Remembrance. 34. Depriving bees of their antenna;. 35. Cannot live 
without antenna?. 36. Brain of bees. 37. Our reverence for Swammer- 
dam. 38. The mouth. 39. The glands. 40. Queen fed by the produc- 
of the upper pair. 41. The others are salivary. 42, Mandibles 43. 
Compared with those of hornets. 44. Other parts of the mouth. 45. Chin 
and tongue 46. Labial palpi and maxilla?. 47. The tongue is not a tube. 
48. Action of the tongue. 49. Its possible improvement. 50. The thor 
ax. 51 Legs. 52. Claws and pulvilli. 53. How the pulvilli work. 
54. Uses of the hairs of the legs. 55. The notch of the first pair. 56. The 
pin of the second pair. 57. The pincers of the posterior pair. 58. The 
pollen combs. 59. Pollen baskets. 60. The wings. 61. Their power and 
speed. 62. Digesting apparatus. 63. Honey sac and stomach mouth. 
64 . Is the larva fed by the glands ? 65 , 66 . Comparison with mammals . 
67. Process of digestion. 68. Nervous system. 69. The heart. 70 The 
lungs or trachea. 71. Their collection with the flight. 72. Bees unable 
to take wing. 73 Their discharge in flight. 74. Girard on the trachea. 
75. The humming. 76. Language of bees. 77. Stahala on this subject 
78. The sting. 79. Poison sack. 80, 81. Shape of the sting and how it 
works. 82. Not easily withdrawn. 83. Very polished weapon 84. Loss 
ofthestin^. 85 Can be with Irawn 86. Bees can live without it. 87. 
The odor of the poison. 88. The sting can wound after removal 89 
When left in the wound. 90. Thauks to the writers. 91. Conclusions of 
Packard. 92. Intelligence of some insects. 

VII 



VIII TABLE OF CONTEXTS. 

The Queen. — 93. She wa^ called king-bee. 94. Her sex disco. ered by 
Butler. 95. Swammerdam. 98. She does not govern. 97 Her fecund- 
ity. 98. How to test it. 99. She lays mor : in Spring. 100. Description. 
101. Love of the bees for their queen. 102. Interesting experiment. 
103. Reproduction of the queen. 101. Queen cells. 105. Their number. 
106. Are eggs deposited in the queen-cells by the queens ? 107 Queens 
from worker eggs. 108. Different food, its result. 109. How orphan 
bees rear queens. 110. Duration of development. 111. The virgin queen. 
'112. Huber on the destruction of their rivals. 113. Bees help in the 
work. 114 Rivals not destroyed when bees intend to swarm. 115. 
Voice of the queen. 116. Combat of queens. 117. Two queens in one 
hive. 118. Narration of the fact. 119. Other instances. 120. Impreg- 
nation of the queen. 121 Time of impregnation. 122. Leaving the hive 
and returning. 123. The mating. 124. Single impregnation for life. 
125. Getting rid of the drone organ. 126. Fertilization in confinement, 
127. Fecundation of the eggs. 128. Leidy and Siebold on the contents of 
the spermatheca. 129. How fertilization takes place. 130. Swammer- 
dam' s observations. 131. Huber confining young queens. 132 Dzier- 
zon's discovery. 133. Parthenogenesis. 131. Drone-laying queen. 135. 
Examination of her ovaries. 136. Bees trying to raise queens with drone 
eggs. 137. Other experiments. 13S. Other proofs of parthenogenesis. 
139. Impregnation of the eggs. 140. No visible difference between drone 
and worker eggs . 141. Effect of delayed fecundation. 142. Do queens 
know the sex of their eggs ? 143. S. Wagner's theory. 144. Facts 
against that theory. 145. Effect of the removal of drone cells. 146. 
Queens laying worker eggs in drone cells. 147. Root's experiment. 148. 
Bordeaux experiment. 149. Difficulty of raising drones early in Spring. 
150. Drones in worker cells. 151. Refrigerating queens. 152. Queen 
begiustolay. 153. How she lays. 154. Breeding seasons. 155. Dif- 
ference in prolificness. 156. Supernumerary eggs. 157. Old queens. 

The "Worker Bees. — 158. Numbers in a hive. 159. Their functions. 
160. Donhoff's experiment. 161. Their first flight. 162. Their first 
honey gathering. 163. Young bees build combs. 164. They feed the 
brood. 165. The eggs. 16fi. The larvae. 167. Casting the skin. 168. 
Capping the brood. 169. The nymph. 170. The cast-off skins. 171. 
Duration of development. 172. The newly-hatched bee. 173. The first 
flight. 174. Should not be mistaken for robbers. 175. Sexual organs 
not developed. 176. Fertile workers. 177. Their probable use. 178, 
Easily discovered. 179. Attempts to raise queens. ISO. Remedy. 181. 
Instinct of the worker bees. 182. Short life. 183. Crippled workers. 
181. Signs of old age. 

Thk Drones.— 185. Description and oflace. 186. Time of their appear- 
ance. 187. In search of the queens. 188. Perish in the act. 189. Num- 
bers in a hive. 190. No necessity for so many. 191. Drone traps, and 
preventing the breeding of drones. 192. Their expulsion by the bees. 
193. By the bee-keeper. 194. Raised in worker cells. 195. "Why impreg- 
nation does not take place in the hive . 196 In-and-in breeding avoided. 
197. Comparative table of development of queen, worker, and drone. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. IX 

Chapter II.— Buildings of Bees. 

Comb. — 198. The furniture of the hive. 199. Made of wax. 200. Is 
wax a fat? 201. Formation of wax scales. 202. Produced mainly by 
young bees. 203. Old bees can produce it also 201. Produced by digest- 
ing honey. 205. Bees hanging in chains. 206. Root on comb-building. 
207. The first discoverer? 208. Scales of wax on the bottom of hives. 
209. Bees picking up old wax. 210. Solving a problem. 211. Shape of 
the cells. 212. Marvelous industry . 213. Natural explanation. 214. 
Cells not horizontal ; thickness of comb. 215. Color of combs. 216. Size 
of cells. 217. True measurement of cells. 218. Intermediate cells. 
219. Economy of material. 220. Wax not made of pollen. 221. Pollen 
needed. 222. Chemical composition of honey and wax. 223. Cost of 
comb. 224. Worker and store cells. 225. Not the same relative quan- 
tity. 226. Not by foreknowledge. 227. Bees follow their desires. 22S. 
Five facts. 229. Preference of builders opposed to the preference of the 
queen. 230. Bees building few store cells. 231. Building about one- 
third. 232. Building them here and there. 233. Rebuilding without 
change. 234. Swarms provided with one or two combs. 235. Conclu- 
sion. 

Pkopolis. —236. How obtained. 237. Soils the combs. 238. Used to 
cement the cracks. 239. Gathered mainly when honey is not found. 
240. Hard in winter. 241. Snails inclosed in propolis 242. Remarks. 
243. Superstitions. 244. Uses in Italy. 245. Uses in Russia. 

Chapter III.— Food of Bees. 

Honey. — 246. What is honey? 247. Is honey the same as r.ectar ? 
248. How nectar is produced. 249. It is more or less watery. 250. Its 
yield varies gre.itly. *-'51. Reabsorbed by the plants, if not gathered. 
252. In other parts of the plants. 253. Best conditions. -'54. Bonnier on 
the nectaries. 255. Honey dew from plants and trees. 256. From 
aphides. 257. How ejected. 258. Season and trees that produce it. 
259. Bonnier on the origin of honey dew. 260. Nectar in deep corollas. 
261 . Storing and evaporating. 262. Are the cappiugs of cells air-tight ? 

Pollen. — 263. Its uses. 264. Indispensable for breeding. 265. Flour 
instead of pollen. 266. Gathering. 267. Substitutes. 268. Bees use- 
ful in plant impregnation. 269. Help in interbreeding plants. 270. In- 
fluence of bees upon the fecundation of plants. 

Wateb. — 271. Water is necessary to bees. 272. How to provide it. 
273. Experiments of De Lay ens. 

Salt.— 274. Bees are fond of salt. 

Chapter IV.— The Bee-Hives. 

Hives with Immovable Combs. —(275. Earthen hives. 276. Brimston- 
ing bees. 277. Cutting the combs. 278. Caps for surplus, section hives. 
279. Vertical divisions. 

Requisites of a Complete Hive. — 280. Twenty-six conditions. 281. 
The most indispensable is good management. 



X TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

Movable Comb-Hives. —282. Used in Greece more than 100 years ago. 
283 . The success of Dzierzou. 284 . The Huber hive . 285 . Improved in 
America. 286. Suspended frame hives. 287. The superiority of the 
Langstroth hive. 288. Modesty of the inventor. 289. The Berlepsch 
hive. 290. Both having their partisans. 291. Disadvantages of the Ber- 
lepsch hive. 292. Will yield to the Langstroth. 293. Advantages of the 
movable ceiling. 294 A standard frame hinders progress. 295. Success 
of American bee-culture. 296. Progress in 30 years. 297. Gravenhorst 
hive. 298. Diversity of sizes 299. The frames used in America. 300. 
Is one better than another? 301. Which is the best shape for frames? 
302. Objection to two stories in brood chamber. 303. Square frames 
objectionable. 304. Deeper frames more so yet. 305. Superiority of 
Langstroth and Quinby frames. 306 Beware of excess. 307. Experi- 
ments. 308. Number of frames. 309. Why limit the laying? 310. 
How many cells arj necessary in a good hive? 311. Comparison of 
frames. 312. Figures cannot lie. 313. Large hives can be reduced. 
314. Excessive swarming. 315. Improving bees. 316. Distance be- 
tweenframes. 317. Increased distance preferable. 318. Straight combs. 
319. How secured. 320. Standard Langstroth frame 321. Stronger 
top and bottom bars. 322. Kegularity of outside measure. 323. Wide 
top bars detrimental. 324. Simplicity frame. 325. Tin cor tiers. 326 
The Quinby frame . 327 Slanting bottom. 328. Frames perpendicular 
to the entrance. 329. The first Langstroth hive. 330. The glass dis- 
carded. 331. The honey board. 332. The bottom board. 333. Venti- 
tilation. 334. How given. 335. Prevents clustering outside. 336. 
Ventilation controlled. 337. Bees propolizing small holes. 33S. The 
portico. 339. Entrance blocks. 340. The hive 'we prefer. 341. Its 
success in Europe. 342. Encased bottom. 343. Apron. 344. Movable 
bottom board. 345. Double thickness of the back. 346. Space around 
the frames. 347. Spacing wire. 348. Height of entrances. 349. 
Division board. 350. Space under it, and how made. 351. Strip to 
widen the projection of the rabbet. 352. Enamel cloth. 353. Straw 
mat. 354. Upper story. 355. Caps. 356. Painting hives. 357. 
Numbering hives. 358 Beware of patents. 359. Material for 
hives. 360. Circular saws. 361. Filing the saws. 362. Boards warp- 
ing. 363. Chaff hives. 364. Ventilation considered again . 365. Bees 
ventilating inside. 366. Pure air indispensable. 367. Effect of waut of 
air. 368. Suffocation. 369. Combs melting. 370. The result. 371. 
Combs of honey melting first. 372. Bees our models. 373. Pure air in 
our dwellings. 

Observing Hives.— 374. Very interesting. 375. Useful. 376. How im- 
proved. 377. Parlor observing hive. 

Chapter V.— Handling Bees. 

378. The honey-bee capable of being tamed. 379. Peaceable when laden 
with honey. 380. Peaceable when swarming. 381. When frightened. 
382. The smokers— how to manage them. 3S3. Apifuge. 384. Car- 
bolized sheet. 385. Magnetizing bees. 386. Bee-veil. 387. Gloves. 
388. Woolen clothes objectionable. 3S9. Smoke not always necessary. 
390. Cyprians diflicult to subdue. 391. Bees quietest at mid-day. 392. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. XI 

Slow motions. 393. Old precepts. 394. Fear of stings a great obstacle. 
395. Light bewilders bees. 396. Care in using smoke. 397. How to 
proceecl.° 398. Returning combs. 399. Mismanagement. 400. Bad 
odors anger bees. 401. Effect of their poison. 402. Remedies. 403. 
Cold water and ammonia. 404. Old bee-keepers poison-proof. 405. 
Bees as means of defense . 

Chapter VI.— Natural Swarming. 

406. Preparations. 407. Not in season. 408. When effected. 409. 
First swarm. 410. Conditions and hour. 411. Last preparations. 412. 
Queen missing. 413. Ringing bells useless . 414. Deportment of bees. 
415. Bees send scouts. 416. Various incidents. 417. Alluring swarms . 
418? Bees generally peaceful wheu swarming. 419. No delay in hiving. 
420. Departing swarms. 421. Have hives ready an I cool. 422. Hives 
furnished with combs. 423. Beware of honey. 424. Comb guides 425. 
Advantages of combs or comb foundation. 426. Securing straight 
combs in the brood chamber. 427. Enlarging the entrance. 428. Bees 
on a small limb. 429. Swarm sack. 430. Be cautious. 431. Sack 
preferable to basket. 432. Swarm on a trunk. 433. Catching the queen . 
434. Clipping wing of the queen. 435. Swarms mixing. 436. Two 
queens in the same swarm. 437. Ten swarms mixed. 438 Securing 
the queen In hiving a swarm. 439 Swarms temporarily hived. 440. Put 
in place as soon as hived. 441. Feeding swarms. 442. Building straight 
combs. 413. Primary swarms with young queens. 444 Secondary 
swarms. 445. Their causes. 446. Piping of the queens 447. Several 
queens in the swarm. 447 (bis) . Superiority of after-swarms. 448. 
Absconding swarms. 449. Third swarms. 450 Prevention of natural 
swarming, its desirability. 451. Excessive natural swarming. 452. 
Natural swarming and selection. 453. Too many swarms lost. 454. 
Causes of swarming. 455, Swarming fever. 456. Heat a stimulus 
457. Drones also. 458. Lack of ventilation. 459. Giving empty combs. 
460. Of easy access. 461. Before complete fullness. 4fi2. Shading the 
hive 463. Drone comb removed. 464. Good ventilation. 465. 
Swarming cannot be absolutely prevented. 466 . Prevention more difficult 
when raising comb honey. 467. Queen and drone traps 468 Preven- 
tion of after-swarms. 
Chapter VIE— Artificial Swarming. 

469. Uncertainty of natural swarming. 470. Dividing. 471. Unre- 
liable. 472. Removing the hive. 473. Driving bees. 474. Its advan- 
tages 475. With movable combs. 476. Improvement. 477. Giving a 
fertile queen. 478. Nucleus method. 479. With sealed queens. 480. 
Building nuclei. 481. Too much dividing. 482. Queen cells made pre- 
viously 483. Several advices. 484. Operations more successful during 
honey harvest. 485. Bees don't quarrel. 486. When the weather is too 
cold. 487. Increasing too fast . 488. Caution. 

Chapter VIII.— Queen Rearing. 

489. How bees raise queens. 490. Are larvae inferior to eggs? 491. 
DePlanta's experiments. 492. Are young worker larvae better fed ? 493. 



XII TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

Can workers use older larvae? 494. Their growth retarded. 495. 
Queeus raised during swarming fVver. 496. Old workers are poor nurses 
497. Conditions to raise good queens. 498. When is the raising of 
queens necessary? 499. Loss of the queen. 500. Unable to fly. 501. 
Lost in her wedding flight. 502. Entering the wrong hive. 503. Sound 
ad ice. 504. Backed by examples. 505. Bees anticipating danger. 
506. How they ascertain their loss. 507 Detecting queenlessness. 5<i8. 
Friendly advice. 509. Drones not killed. 510. Plaintive hum of bees. 
511. Rearing improved races. 512. Selecting drones. 513. Using 
m derately populous colonies. 511. Raising from eggs. 515. Large 
number of queen cells. 516. Preparing their reception. 517. How 
to transfer queen cells. 518. Precautious. 519. Inspection. 520. 
Nucleus. 5il. Divisible frame. 5 22. How to prepare nuclei. 523. 
Beware of bees returning. 52 4. Making strong nuclei. 525. Prepare 
on the preceding day. 526. Watching and removing the laying 
queen. 527. Precautions. 528. Alley's method. 52 \ Queen nur- 
series. 530. Lamp nursery. 531. Progress of the bu iness of rearing 
queens. 532. Some advice. 533. Introducing impregnated queens. 
531. Conditions of success. 535. Sprinkling scented water. 536. 
Queen cage. 537. How to use. 538. Balled queens. 5:i9. Queens 
starving and Simmins' method. 540. Stupefying bees. 541. Introduc- 
tion of virgin queens. 542. Bees swarming with introduced queens. 543. 
How to find a queen. 544. The odor of queens. 

Chapter IX.— Races of Bees. 

545. Bees not indigenous to America. 546. First noticed in Florida. 
547. Bees going westward. 548. Several varieties. 549. The first in- 
troduced. 550. The main varieties. 551. Italian lees. 552. Their 
qualities. 553. Description. 554. The best test. 555. Italian drones 
and queens irregularly marked. 556. Vary even in Italy. 557. First 
importation in Austria. 55S. In America. 559. Apis fasciata. 580. 
Holy Land and Syrian bees. 561. Apis dorsata. 562. Australian bees. 
563. Melipoues. 

Chapter X. — The Apiary. 

561. Who should keep bees ? 565. Honey resources. 566. Begin on a 
small scale. 567. Protect the hives. 568. Avoid weeds. 569. Separ- 
ate stands. 570. Covered apiaries. 571. Sheds. 572. Out-door apiaries. 
573. Procuring bees. 574. Transferring. 575. Decoy hives. 576. 
Drumming. 577. Be sure of having the queen. 578. Tools and Imple- 
ments. 579. How to proceed. 580. Spare worker brood. 5S1. Hed- 
don method. 582 Out-apiaries. 583. Conditions required. 581. 
Our terms for a locatiou. 5S5. How many apiaries ? 5S6. Honey house 
and window netting. 

Chapter XI. — Shipping and Transporting Bees. 

5S7. Ventilation. 588. Fastening frames. 589. Rongh handling. 
590. Sending South. 591. Bees on boats. 592. Floating apiaries. 
593. Sending to better pastures. 594. Shipping queens. 595. Best 
food. 596. Bees from Italy. 597. Qireen the last to die. 598. Mailing 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. XIII 

queens. 599. Bees by the pound. 600. How many in a pound? 601. 
Raising queens in the South. 602. Bees in the North. 603. Transport- 
ing colonies. 603 (bis) . Shade board in front. 604. Transporting 
swarms . 

Chapter XII.— Feeding Bees. 

605. Feeding often necessary. 606. Spring feeding. 607. Bees starv- 
ing in Spring. 60S. Fall feeding. 609. Feeders. 610. Feeding syrup. 
611. Sugar candy. 612. Root's experience. 613. Scholz method. 614. 
Loaf sugar. 615. Feeding not to lie encouraged. 616. Bees do not make 
honey. 617. Beware of candy shops. 618. As bad for bees as grog- 
shops for men. 

Chapter XIII— AVintering Bees. 

619. Wintering in cold climates. 620. How they cluster. 621 . Their 
tremulous motions. 622. Eating to keep warm. 623. Amount of food 
needed. 624. Beware of mistakes. 625. An unlooked-for experiment. 
626. Quality of the fool. 627. Bad food. 628. How to dispose of it. 
629. Syrup instead of honey. 630. Narrowing the hive. 631. Winter 
passages. 632. On summer stands. U32 (bis). Scant population in 
winter. 633 . Uniting colonies. 634. How to prevent fighting. 635. 
Winter protection. 636. Warm absorbents above. 637. Entrance left 
open. 638. No disturbance in cold weather. 639. Advantages of a Win- 
ter flight. 610. Chaff hives. 641 . Their defects. 642. Less trouble. 
613. Outer boxes. 644. Best conditions. 645. Indoor wintering in 
Europe. 646. Cellar wintering. 647. Directions. 648. Temperature. 
649. Cellar blinds. 650. Quietness and darkness. 651. Results of bad 
wiutering. 652. Select a warm day. 653. Lowest degree needed. 654. 
Putting colonies in same place. 655. Danger of robbery. 656. Flight 
during winter. 657. Bees in clamps. 65S. Beware of cold repositoiies. 
69 Spring dwindling. 660. Constipation. 66 1 . Best condition . 662. 
Water needed. 663. Care to be given. 

Chapter XIV — Robbing. 

664. Robber bees. 66 > Difficult to detect. 666. Promoted by the bee- 
keeper. 6 67. How detected. 668. Difficult to stop. 669. Exchang- 
ing places. 670. Carbolized sheet. 671. Latent robbing. 672. 
Prevention. 673. Weak colonies. 

Chapter XV. — Comb-Foundation. 

674. Its advantages. 675. Replacing drone comb. 676. Value of 
worker comb. 677. The inventor of comb foundation. 678. His imitat- 
ors. 679. Root' > roll eT mills. 680. Goodresults. 681 . His followers. 
682. Given press. 683. Plaster mould. 684. Improved mills. 685. 
Selected wax. 686. A' solutely pure. 687. Light and heavy machines. 
688. Foundation for comb honey. 689. Preparing the sheets. 690. 
Printing . 691 . A special industry . 692 . Weight of the different grades . 
693. How fastened. 694. Wiring foundation. 695. How to cut it' 
696. The right position . 697. It is a success. 



XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

Chapter XVI — Pasturage and Overstocking. 

Pasturage— 698. Quantity varies. 699. Even in the same kind of blos- 
soms. 700. Study of the resources. 701. Clover. 702. Linden. 703 
Alsike. 704. Several others. 705. Fall flowers. 706. List of 200 honey or 
pollen yielding plants. 

Overstocking.— 707. Is it possible? 708. How far bees fly ? 70 9. How 
many colonies to the acre ? 710. In Germany. 711. In California. 712. 
The crop of our county. 713. Opinions on overstocking. 714. Helping 
bees. 715. Average of crops . 

Chapter XVU — Production. 

716. Its history. 717. Our progress. 718. Conditions of success. 

Comb Honey. — 719. Very attractive. 720. Its improvements. 721. 
Honey in sections . 722 . Small sections . 723 . How made . 724 . Upper 
story. 725. Difficulties. 726. Reversing. 727 Reversible hives. 
728. Built sections. 729. Brood chamber full. 730. Exchanging 
combs. 731. Straight combs. 732. Queen in the lower story. 733. 
Sections given to the swarm. 734. No propoliziug. 735. Securing 
sealed combs. 736. Fastened solid. 737. Preventing bridges. 738. 
How deep the upper story. 739. Section crate. 740. Manum clamps. 
741. Foster open-side sections. 742. Foster case. 743. Removing 
sections. 714. Some other facts . 745. Conclusion. 

Extracted Honey. — 716. Strained honey. 747. In Europe. 748. From 
hollow trees. 749. Invention of Hruschka. 750. Our first extractor. 
751. Our mistake. 752. Advantages of extracting. 753. Advice to 
beginners. 754. Less work. 755. Swarming prevented. 756. Use of 
extractor advised. 757. Half stories. 758. Defects of full depth upper 
stories. 659. How to use upper stories. 760. Greater facilities for 
bees. 761. Inspection. 762. How many pounds of honey. 763. Fur- 
nishing empty combs. 764. Artificial ripening. 765. Equalizing the 
surplus. 766. Harvesting. 767. Implements needed. 768. Robber- 
cloths. 769. How to proceed. 770. Implements in the honey house. 
771. Extracting from the brood chamber. 772. Cappingcan. 773. Ex- 
tractors 774. Uncapping knives. 775. Extracting. 776. Inviting 
neighbors. 777. Automatic extractors. 778. Emp ying the extractor. 
779. Caution. 780. Beware of robbing. 781. Returning the combs. 
782. Separate the crops. 783. Conclusion. 

Chapter XVIII. — Diseases of Bees. 

784. Diarrhea. 785. Hairless bees. 786. Contagious diseases. 7S7. 
Foul-brood. 788. Experiments of Dupont. 789. Description of the dis- 
ease. 790. Detected in Spring. 791. Jones' treatment. 792. Muth's 
method. 793. Bertrand method. 794. Fumigating process. 795. 
Cheshire method. 796. Care and perseverance. 797. Preventive care. 
798. Infected queens. 799. Antiseptics. 800. Divers contagious dis- 
eases. 801. Accidental dead brood. 

Chapter XIX.— Enemies of Bees. 

802. Bee moth. 803. Description. 804. Their actions . 805. Their gal- 
leries. 806. Their worms. 807. Their food. 808. How they behave. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. XV 

809. Temperature required. 810. Killed by heavy frosts. 811. Dis- 
gusting results . 812 . How to protect combs . 813 . Italians nearly moth- 
proof. 814. Queenless colonies their easy prey. 815. Moth not to be 
feared. 816 Mice. 817. Birds. 818. Sparrows. 819. Do not kill 
birds. 820. Barnyard fowls. 821. Toads. 822. Bears. 823. Braula 
coeca . 82 I . Other insects . 

Chapter XX. — Honey Handling, and Marketing. Uses of Honey. 

825. Different grades. 826. Comb-honey sweating. 827. Leakage of 
sections. 828. Care in shipping. 829. Barrels for extracted. 830. 
Granulation. 831. Experiences on granulation . 832. Coarse granula- 
tion. 833. Fermentation. 834. Melting honey. 835. Result of in- 
creased pvoducti on. 836. Adulteration. 837. That vile Wiley lie. 838. 
Objections to granulation. 839 . European people not prejudiced. SIO. 
Inducing consumption. 8 41. Showy labels. 842. Tin packages to be 
preferred. 843. How to stop leakage. 841. Persuading grocers. 845. 
Explaining what honey is. 816. Gaining confidence. 847. Honey as 
food. 848. Very healthy. 819. Honey dainties. 850. French pain- 
d'epice. 851. Crisp gingerbread. 852. Alsatian gingerbread. 853. 
Honey cakes. 854. Italian croccaute. 855. Muth honey cake. 856. 
Vinegar. 857. Honey as medicine. 

Chapter XXI.— Beeswax and its Uses. 

858. Laying up wax. 859. The cappings. 860. Washing dark comb. 
861. Melting. 862. Pressing. 863. Steam and sun extractors. 864. 
Treating wax residues. 865. Cleaning. 866. Care and bleaching. 867. 
Wax on writing-tablets and for embalming. 868. Wax candles. 869. 
Other uses. 870. Recipes for medicinal and other purposes, 

Chapter XXII. — Bees and Fruits and Flowers. 

871. Bees cannot injure fruits. 872. Our experiments. 873. Damaged 
by birds. 875. Bees improving wiue. 876. Annoyance. 877. Juice 
of fruits injuring bee3. 878. Bees always beneficial to flowers. 

Chapter XXIII.— Bee Keeper's Calendar. Mistakes and Axioms. 

879. January. 880. February. 881. March. 882. April. 883. May. 
88*. June. 885. July. 886. August. 887. September. 888. Octo' er. 
889. November. 890. December. 891. Spring. 892. Summer. 893. 
Fall. 894. Winter. 895. Mistakes. 896. Axioms. 



THE HIVE AND HONEY-BEE. 



CHAPTER I. 

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 

1. All the leading facts in the natural history, and the 
breeding of bees, ought to be as familiar to the Apiarist, as 
the same class of facts in the rearing of his domestic ani- 
mals. A few crude and half-digested notions, however 
satisfactory to the old-fashioned bee-keeper, will no longer 
meet the wants of those who desire to conduct bee-culture 
on an extended and profitable system. Hence we have found 
it advisable to give a short description of the principal or- 
gans of this interesting insect, and abridged passages taken 
from various scientific writers, whose works have thrown an 
entirely new light on many points in the physiology of the 
bee. If the reader will bear with us in this arduous 
task, he will find that we have tried to make the descriptions 
plain and simple, avoiding, as much as possible, scientific 
words unintelligible to many of us. 

2. Honey-bees are insects belonging to the order Hy- 
menoptera; thus named from their four membranous, gauzy 
wings. They can flourish only when associated in large 
numbers, as in a colony. Alone, a single bee is almost as 
helpless as a new-born child, being paralyzed by the chill 
of a cool summer night. 

1 



2 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 

3. The habitation provided for bees is called a hive. 
The inside of a bee-hive shows a number of combs about 
half-an-inch apart and suspended from its upper side. 
These combs are formed of hexagonal cells of various sizes, 
in which the bees raise their young and deposit their stores. 

4. In a family, or colony of bees, are found (Plate II) — 
1st, One bee of peculiar shape, commonly called the Queen, 

or mother-bee. She is the only perfect female in the hive, 
and all the eggs are laid by her ; 

2d, Many thousands of worker-bees, or incomplete females, 
whose office is, while young, to take care of the brood and 
do the inside work of the hive ; and when older, to go to 
the fields and gather honejr, pollen, water, and propolis or 
bee-glue, for the needs of the colony ; and 

3d, At certain seasons of the year, some hundreds and 
even thousands of large bees, called Drones, or male-bees, 
whose sole function is to fertilize the young queens, or virgin 
females. 

Before describing the differences that characterize each 
of these three kinds, we will study the organs which, to a 
greater or less extent, they possess in common, and which 
are most prominently found in the main type, the worker- 
bee. 

General Characteristics. 

5. In bees, as in all insects, the frame-work or skeleton 
that supports the body is not internal, as in mammals, but 
mostly external. It is formed of a horny substance, scientif- 
ically called chitine, and well described in the following 
quotation : 

6. "Chitine is capable of being moulded into almost every 
conceivable shape and appearance. It forms the hard back of 
the repulsive cockroach, the beautiful scale-like feathers of the 
gaudy butterfly, the delicate membrane which supports the lace- 



Plate 2. 






QUEEN, DRONE, and WORKER— Magnified and Natural Size. 



GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 3 

wing in mid air, the transparent cornea covering the eyes of all 
insects, the almost impalpable films cast by the moulting larvse, 
and the black and yellow rings of our native and imported bees, 
besides internal braces, tendons, membranes, and ducts innu- 
merable. The external skeleton, hard for the most part, and 
varied in thickness in beautiful adaptation to the strain to which 
it may be exposed, gives persistency of form to the little wearer ; 
but it needs, wherever movement is necessary, to have delicate 
extensions joining the edges of its unyielding plates. This we 
may understand by examining the legs of a lobster or crab, fur- 
nished like those of the bee, with a shelly case, but so large that 
no magnifying glass is required. Here we see that the thick coat 
is reduced to a thin and easily creased membrane, where, by flex- 
ion, one part is made to pass over the other." 

"Again, almost every part of the body is covered by hairs, the 
form, structure, direction, and position of which, to the very 
smallest, have a meaning." (Cheshire, "Bees and Bee-keeping," 
p. 30. London, 1887.) 

7. Mr. Cheshire explains that, as the skeleton or frame- 
work of the bee is not sensitive, these hairs act as organs 
of touch, each one containing a nerve. They also act as 
clothing and aid in retaining heat — 

"and give protection, as the stiff, straight hairs of the eyes, 
whilst some act as brushes for cleaning, others are thin and 
webbed for holding pollen grains ; whilst by varied modifications, 
others again act as graspers, sieves, piercers, or mechanical stops 
to limit excessive movement." 

8. The three sections of the body of the honey-bee are 
perfectly distinct : the head ; the thorax, or centre of locomo- 
tion, bearing the wings and the legs ; and the abdomen, 
containing the honey-sack, stomach, bowels, and the main 
breathing organs. 

The principal exterior organs of the head are the antennae, 
the eyes, and the parts composing the mouth. 

9. The eyes are five in number, two composite eyes, one 
on each side of the head, which are but clusters of small 
eyes or facets, and three convex eyes, or ocelli, arranged in 
a triangle at the top of the head. 



4 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 

10. The facets of the composite eyes, thousands in num- 
ber, are six-sided, like the cells of the honey-comb, and 
being directed towards nearly every point, they permit the 
insect to see in a great number of directions at the same 
time. 




Fig. 1. 
Head of worker . B, Head of queen . C, Head of drone. 
(From "Les Abeilles" of Maurice Girard.) 



(Magnified.) 



11. In comparing the e} T es of worker, queen and drone, 
Mr. Cheshire says : 

" The worker spends much of her time in the open air. Accu- 
rate and powerful vision are essentials to the proper prosecution 
of her labours, and here I found the compound eye possessing 
about 6,300 facets. In the mother of this worker I expected to 
find a less number, for queens know little of daylight. After 
wedding they are out of doors but once, or at most twice, in a 
year.* This example verified my forecast, by showing 4,920 facets 
on each side of the head. A son of this mother, much a stay-at- 
home also, was next taken. His facets were irregular in size, 
those at the lower part of the eye being much less than those 
near the top ; but they reached the immense number of 13,090 on 
each side of the head. Why should the visual apparatus of the 
drdne be so extraordinarily developed beyond that of the worker, 
whose need of the eye seems at first to be much more pressing 
than his ? " 



* When going out with a swarm. 



GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 5 

This question Mr. Cheshire answers, as will be seen far- 
ther, in considering the antennae. (26)* 

12. The three small eyes, ocelli, are thought by Maurice 
Girard ("Les Abeilles," Paris, 1878), and others, to have 
a microscopic function, for sight at short distances. In the 
hive, the work is performed in the dark, and possibly ( ?) 
these eyes are fitted for this purpose. 

13. Their return from long distances, either to their 
hive or to the place where they have found food, proves that 
bees can see very far. Yet, when the entrance to their hive 
has been changed, even only a few inches, they cannot 
readily find it. 

Their many eyes looking in different directions, enable 
them to guide themselves by the relative position of objects, 
hence they always return to the identical spot they left. 

14. If we place a colony in a forest where the rays of 
the sun can scarcely penetrate, the bees, at their exit from 
the hive, will fly several times around their new abode, then, 
selecting a small aperture through the dense foliage, they 
will rise above the forest, in quest of the flowers scattered 
in the fields. And like children in a nutting party, they 
will gather their crop here and there, a mile or more away, 
without fear of being lost or unable to return. 

As soon as their honey-sack is full, or, if a threatening 
cloud passes before the sun, they start for home, without 
any hesitation, and, among so many trees, even while the 
wind mingles the leafy twigs, they find their way ; so perfect 
is the organization of their composite eyes. 

15. Bees can notice and remember colors. While ex- 
perimenting on this faculty, we placed some honey on small 
pieces of differently colored paper. A bee alighted on a 
yellow paper, sucked her load and returned to her hive. 

* The reader will readily understand that the numbers between parentheses 
refer to the paragraphs bearing those numbers. This is for the convenience of 
the student. 



6 PHYSIOLOGY OP THE HONEY-BEE. 

While she was absent, we moved the paper. Returning, 
she came directly to the spot, but, noticing that the yellow 
paper was not there, she made several inquiring circles in 
the air, and then alighted upon it. A similar experiment 
was made by Lubbock. (A.J.Cook, "Bee-keepers' Guide," 
Lansing, 1884.) 

16. We usually give our bees flour, in shallow boxes, at 
the opening of Spring, before the pollen appears in the 
flowers. These boxes are brought in at night. Every morn- 
ing they are put out again, after the bees have com- 
menced flying and hover around the spot. If by chance, 
some bits of white paper are scattered about the place, the 
bees visit those papers, mistaking them for flour, on account 
of the color. 

1Y. But " the celebrated Darwin was mistaken in saying that 
the colorless blossoms, which he names obscure blossoms, are 
scarcely visited by insects, while the most highly colored blos- 
soms are very fondly visited by bees." (Gaston Bonnier, " Les 
Nectaires," Paris, 1879.) 

18. For, although color attracts bees, it is onty one of the 
means used by nature to bring them in contact with the 
flowers. The smell of honey is, certainly, the main attrac- 
tion, and this attraction is so powerful, that frequently, at 
da} r break in the summer, the bees will be found in full 
flight, gathering the honey which has been secreted in the 
night, when nothing, on the preceding evening, could have 
predicted such a crop. This happens especially when there 
is a production of honey-dew, after a storm. We have even 
known bees to gather honey from the tulip trees, (Lirioden- 
dron tulipifera) on very clear moonlight nights. 

19. The antennae (fig. 2, A, B), two flexible horns which 
adorn the head of the bee, are black, and composed of 
twelve joints, in the queen and the worker, and thirteen in 
the drone. The first of these joints, the scape, next to the 



GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 



head, is longer than the others, and can move in every di- 
rection. The antenna is covered with hairs. 



sc tin 




Fig. 2. 
LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF DRONE ANTENNA, NERVE STRUCTURES 
REMOVED. 

(Magnified 20 times . From Cheshire . ) 

A. sc, scape; fl, flagellum; 1, 2, &c, number of joints: af, antennary fos- 
sa, or hollow; tr, trachea; m, soft membrane; wh, webbed hairs; lm, levator 
muscle; dm, depressor muscle. 

B, small portion of flagellum (magnified 60 times) ; n, nerve; a, articula- 
tion of joint. 

" These hairs, standing above the general surface, constitute 
the antennae marvelous touch organs ; and as they are distributed 
all round each joint, the worker-bee in a blossom cup, or with its 
head thrust into a cell in the darkness of the hive, is, by their 
means, as able accurately to determine as though she saw ; while 
the queen, whose antenna is made after the same model, can per- 
fectly distinguish the condition of every part of the cell into 
which her head may be thrust. The last joint, which is flattened 
on one side, near the end, is more thickly studded, and here the 
hairs are uniformly bent towards the axis of the whole organ. 
!STo one could have watched bees without discovering that, by the 
antennae, intercommunication is accomplished ; but for this pur- 
pose front and side hairs alone are required; and the drone, 
unlike the queen and worker, very suggestively, has no others, 
since the condition of the cells is no part of his care, if only the 
larder be well furnished." (Cheshire.) 

20. The celebrated Francois Huber, of Geneva, made a 



8 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 

number of experiments on the antennae, and ascertained that 
they are the organs of smell and feeling. 

Before citing his discoveries, we must pay our tribute of 
admiration to this wonderful man. (Plate III. ) 
V Huber, in early manhood, lost the use of his eyes. His 
opponents imagined that to state this fact would materially 
discredit his observations. And to make their case still 
stronger, they asserted that his servant, Francis Burnens, by 
whose aid he conducted his experiments, was only an igno- 
rant peasant. Now this so-called " ignorant peasant " was a 
man of strong native intellect, possessing the indefatigable 
energy and enthusiasm indispensable to a good observer. 
He was a noble specimen of a self-made man, and rose to be 
the chief magistrate in the village where he resided. Huber 
has paid a worthy tribute to his intelligence, fidelity, pa- 
tience, energy and skill.* 

Huber' s work on bees is such an admirable specimen 
of the inductive S3^stem of reasoning, that it might well be 
studied as a model of the only way of investigating nature, 
so as to arrive at reliable results. 

21. Huber was assisted in his researches, not only by 
Burnens, but by his own wife, to whom he was betrothed be- 
fore the loss of his sight, and who nobly persisted in marry- 
ing him, notwithstanding his misfortune and the strenuous 
dissuasions of her friends. They lived longer than the ordi- 
nary term of human life in the enjoyment of great domestic 
happiness, and the amiable naturalist, through her assiduous 
attentions, scarcely felt the loss of his sight. 

22. Milton is believed by many to have been a better 
poet in consequence of his blindness ; and it is highly prob- 
able that Huber was a better Apiarist from the same cause. 

* A single fact will show the character of the man . It became necessary, in a 
certain experiment, to examine separately all the bees in two hives. ' 'Burnens 
spent eleven days in performing this work, and during the whole time he scarcely 
allowed himself any relaxation, hut what the relief of his eyes required. ' ' 



Plate 3. 




FEAXgOIS HUBER, 

Author of the " Nouvelles Observations sur Us Abeilles" published in 
Geneva, Switzerland, 1792-1814. 



This writer is mentioned pages 7. 8, 9, 13, 14, 44, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54, 55, 66, 

67, 74, 76, 81, 94, 99, 100, 106, 119, 120, 139, 177, 201, 204, 

239, 274, 290, 291, 376, 460. 



GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 9 

His active, yet reflective mind, demanded constant employ- 
ment ; and he found, in the study of the habits of the honey- 
bee, full scope for his powers. All the observations and 
experiments of his faithful assistants being daily reported, 
many inquiries and suggestions were made by him, which 
might not have suggested themselves, had he possessed the 
use of his eyes. 

Few, like him, have such command of both time and money, 
as to be able to prosecute on so grand a scale, for a series 
of years, the most costly experiments. Having repeatedly 
verified his most important observations, we take great de- 
light in holding him up to our countrymen as the Prince of 
Apiarists. 

23. Huber, having imprisoned a queen in a wire cage, saw 
the bees pass their antennae through the meshes of the cage, 
and turn them in every direction. The queen answered 
these tokens of love by clinging to the cage and crossing her 
antennae with theirs. Some bees were trying to draw the 
queen out, and several extended their tongues to feed her 
through the meshes.* Huber adds: 

" How can we doubt now that the communication between the 
workers and the queen was maintained by the touch of the 
antennae." 

24. That bees can hear, either by their antennae or 
some other organ, few will now deny, even although the 
sound of a gun near the hive is entirely unnoticed by them. 

" Should some alien being watch humanity during a thunder- 
storm, he might quite similarly decide that thunder was to us in- 
audible. Clap might follow clap without securing any external 
sign of recognition ; yet let a little child with tiny voice but 
shriek for help, and all would at once be awakened to activity. 
So with the bee : sounds appealing to its instincts meet with im- 
mediate response, while others evoke no wasted emotion." 
(Cheshire.) 

* Wonderful as the experiment seemed at that time, the fact is verified now 
by daily occurrences in queen-rearing. 



10 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HOXEY-BEE. 



" The sound that bees produce by the vibrating of their wings 
is often the means of calling one another. If you place a bee-hive 
in a very dark room, their humming will draw the scattered bees 
together. In vain do you cover the hive, or change its place, the 
bees will invariably go towards the spot whence the sound comes." 
(Collin, " Guide du Proprietaire d'Abeilles," Paris, 1875.) 

25. To prove that bees can hear is easy, but to determine 
the location of the organ is more difficult. The small holes 
which were discovered on the surface of the antennae, have 
been considered as organs of hearing by Lefebure (1838), 
and by others later. Cheshire has noticed these small holes 
in the six or seven last articulations of the antennas : holes 




C O 

Fig. 3. 

PARTS OF SURFACE OF AXTEXXJK. 

(Magnified 360 times. From Cheshire.) 

A, portion of front surface of one of the lower members of the flagellum 
(worker or queen) . s', smelling orgau; /', feeling hair. 

B, portion of the side and hack of same (worker), h, ordinary hair: <•% 
conoid hair; ho (auditory?) hollows. 

C, portion of one of the lower members of flagellum (drone) . 

D, portion of lower member of flagellum (back, worker or queen) . 

which become more numerous towards the end of the antenna, 
so that the last joint carries perhaps twenty. He, also, con- 
siders these as the organs of hearing, especially because they 
are larger in the drones, who inay need to distinguish the 
sounds of the queen's wings.* On this question, Prof. Cook, 
in his i: Bee-keepers' Guide," says: 

" Xo Apiarist has failed to notice the effect of various sounds 
made by the bees upon their comrades of the hive, and how con- 



* The queens and the drones, in flight, each have a peculiar and easily dis- 
tinguishable sound. 



GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 



11 



tagious the sharp note of anger, the low hum of fear, and the 
pleasant tone of a swarm as they commence to enter their new 
home. Now, whether insects take note of these vibrations as we 
recognize pitch, or whether they just distinguish the tremor, I 
think no one knows." 

26. It is well proven that bees can smell with their 
antennae, and Cheshire carefully describes the "smell hol- 
lows" not to be mistaken for the " ear holes," which are 
smaller, but also located on the antenna. 

" In the case of the worker, the eight active joints of the an- 
tenna have an average of fifteen rows, of twenty smell-hollows 
each, or 2,400 on each antenna. The queen has a less number, giv- 
ing about 1,600 on each antenna. If these organs are olfactory, we 
see the reason. The worker's necessity to smell nectar explains 
all. We, perhaps, exclaim— Can it be that these little threads 




LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH PORTION OF FLAGELLUM OF 
ANTENNA OF WORKER. 

(Magnified 300 times . From Cheshire . ) 
/, feeling hair; s, smelling organ; ho, hollow; c, conoid or cone-shaped 
hair; hi, hypodermal or under-skin layer; v,„, nerves in bundles; ar, ar- 
ticulation; a, conoid hair, magnified 800 times. 

we call antennae can thus carry thousands of organs each requir- 
ing its own nerve end? But greater surprises await us, and I 
must admit that the examinations astonished me greatly. In the 
drone antenna we have thirteen joints in all, of which nine are 
barrel-shaped and special, and these are covered completely by 
smell-hollows. An average of thirty rows of thess, seventy in a 
row, on the nine joints of the two antennae, give the astounding 



12 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 

number of 37,800 distinct organs. When I couple this develop- 
ment with the greater size of the eye of the drone, and ask what 
is his function, why needs he such a magnificent equipment? and 
remember that he has not to scent the nectar from afar, nor spy 
out the coy blossoms as they peep between the leaves, I feel forced 
to the conclusion that the pursuit of the queen renders them nec- 
essary." (Cheshire.) 

27. While giving these short quotations and beautiful 
engravings from Cheshire's anatomy of the bee, we earnestly 
advise the scientific bee-student to procure and read his 
work. Mr. Cheshire shows us those minute organs so beauti- 
fully and extensively magnified, that in reading his book we 
feel as though we were transported by some Genius inside 
of the body of a giant insect, every detail of whose organi- 
zation was laid open before us. However wonderful the 
statement made above, of the existence of nearly 20,000 
organs in such a small thing as the antenna of a bee, this 
fact will not be disputed. Those of our -bee-friends, who have 
had the good luck to meet the sympathetic editor of the 
British Bee-Journal, Mr. Cowan, during his trip to America, 
in 1887, will long remember the wonderful microscopical 
studies, and the microscope which he brought with him. 
This instrument, the most powerful by far that we ever had 
seen, gave us a practical peep into the domain of the infini- 
tesimal. 

28. Better than any other description of the smallness of 
atoms is that given by Flammarion, in his "Astronomie 
Populaire ' ' : 

"It is proven," he says, " that an atom cannot be larger than 
one ten-millionth of a millimeter. It results from this, that the 
number of atoms contained in the head of a pin, of an ordinary 
diameter, would not be less than 

8,000,000,000,000,000,000,000. 

And if it was possible to count these atoms, and to separate them, 
at the rate of one billion per second, it would take 250,000 years 
to number them." 



GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 13 

29. Girard reports, as follows, an experiment on the ol- 
factory organs of our little insects : 

" While a bee was intently occupied sucking honey, we brought 
near her head a pin dipped in ether. She at once showed symp- 
toms of a great anxiety ; but an inodorous pin remained entirely 
unnoticed." 

30. Whatever be the location of their olfactory organs, 
they are unquestionably endowed with a marvelous power of 
detecting the odor of hone}' in flowers or elsewhere. 

One day we discovered that some bees had entered our 
honey-room, through the kej^-hole. We turned them out, 
and stopped it up. Some time after, more bees had entered, 
and we vainly searched for the crevice that admitted them. 
Finally a feeble hum caused us to notice that they were 
coming down the chimney to the fire-place, which was closed 
by a screen. The wedge which held this screen having be- 
come somewhat loose, the motion of the screen in windy 
weather opened a hole just large enough for a bee to crawl 
through. A few bees were waiting behind the screen, and 
as soon as its motion allowed one to pass, she manifested 
her joy by the humming which led to the discovery. These 
bees, escaping with a load, when the door was opened, had 
become customary and interested visitors. 

31. Every bee-keeper has noticed that their flight is 
guided by the scent of flowers, though they be a mile or more 
away. In the city of Keokuk, situated on a hill in a curve 
of the Mississippi, the bees cross the river, a mile wide, 
to find the flowers on the opposite bank. 

3 '2. '* Not only do bees have a very acute sense of smell, but 
they add to this facult}' the remembrance of sensations. Here is 
an example : We had placed some honey on a window. Bees 
soon crowded upon it. Then the honey was taken away, and the 
outside shutters were closed and remained so the whole winter. 
When, in Spring, the shutters were opened again, the bees came 
back, although there was no honey on the window. No doubt, 
they remembered that they got honey there before. So, an inter- 



14 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 

val of several months was not sufficient to efface the impression 
they had received. — (Huber, "Nouvelles Observations sur les 
Abeilles," Geneve, 1814.) 

33. It is well known, also, that bees wintered in cellars 
(646) remember their previous location when taken out in 
the Spring. 

If food is given to a colonj^, at the same hour, and in the 
same spot, for two days in succession, the}^ will expect it 
the third day, at the same time and place. 

34. When one of her antennae is cut off, no change takes 
place in the behavior of the queen. If you cut both antennas 
near the head, this mother, formerly held in such high considera- 
tion by her people, loses all her influence, and even the m aternal 
instinct disappears. Instead of laying her eggs in the cells, she 
drops them here and there. — (Huber.) 

The experiments made by Huber on workers and drones, 
in regard to the loss of the antennas, are equally conclusive. 
The workers, deprived of their antennae, returned to the 
hive, where they remained inactive and soon deserted it for- 
ever, light being the only thing which seemed to have any 
attraction for them. 

In the same way, drones, deprived of their antennas, de- 
serted the observatory hive, as soon as the light was excluded 
from it, although it was late in the afternoon, and no drones 
were flying out. Their exit was attributed to the lc* > of 
this organ, which helps to direct them in darkness. 

35. The inference is obvious, that a bee deprived of her 
antennae loses her intellect. 

" If you deprive a bird, a pigeon, for instance, of its cerebral 
lobe, it will be deprived of its instinct, yet it will live if you stuff 
it with food. Furthermore, its brain will eventually be renewed, 
thus bringing back all the uses of its senses." — (Claude Bernard, 
"Science Experimentale.") 

Bees, however, cannot live without their antennae, and 
these organs would not grow again, like the brains of birds, 
the legs of crawfishes, or the tails of lizards. 



GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 



15 



36. Let us notice, in reference to the sensorial organs, 
that the brain of workers is very much larger than that of 
either the queen or the drone, who need but a very common 
instinct to perform their functions ; while the various occu- 
pations of the workers, who act as nurses, purveyors, sweep- 
ers, watchful wardens, and directors of the economy of the 
bee-hive, necessitate an enlargement of faculties very extra- 
ordinary in so small an insect. 

37. We cannot better close this chapter than by quoting 
the celebrated Hollander, Swammerdam, as Cheshire does: 

" I cannot refrain from confessing, to the glory of the immense, 
incomprehensible Architect, that I have but imperfectly de- 
scribed and represented this 
small organ ; for to repre- 
sent it to the life in its full 
perfection, far exceeds the 
utmost efforts of human 
knowledge." 

38. We have now come 
to the most difficult organ 
to describe — the mouth 
of the bee. But we will 
first visit the interior of 
the head and of the tho- 
rax, to find the nursing 
ar -'■'.■ salivary* glands, and 
explain their uses. 

39. The workers have 
three pairs of glands : two 
pairs, different in form, 
placed in the head (a, a, 
fig. 5), and one larger 
pair, located in the thorax 
or corselet. The upper 
pair, which resembles a string of onions 




Mg. 5. 

SALIVARY GLANDS OF THE WORKER- 
BEE. 

(Magnified. From Maurice Girard.) 

a, a, glands of the head; b, glands of the 
thorax. 

is absent in the 



* In plainer words, spittle-producing tubes. 



16 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 



drones and queens. According to Girard, these upper glands 
were discovered by Meckel in 1846. They are very large and 
dilated in the young worker bees, while they act as nurses, 
but are slim in the bees of a broodless colony. In the 
old bees, that no longer nurse the brood, they wither 
more and more, till they become shrunken and seemingly 
dried. Hence Maurice Girard, and others before him, have 
concluded very rationally that these upper glands produce 
the milky food given to the larvae, during the first days of 
their development. Mr. Cheshire has advanced the very 
reasonable theory that the queen, during the time of egg- 
laying, is fed by the workers from the secretions of this gland. 




Fig. 6. 
LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH HEAD OF WORKER. 

(Magnified 14 times . From Cheshire . ) 
a, antenna, with three muscles attached to mrp, meso-cephalic pillar; 
d, clypeus: Ihr, labrum or upper lip; No. 1, upper salivary or chyle gland 
(this gland really runs in front of the meso-cephalic pillars, hut here the 
latter are kept in view); o, opening of same in the mouth; oc, ocellus or 
simple eye; eg, cephalic ganglion, or brain system; », neck; th, thorax; 
os, oesophagus or gullet; ■«/ 2, 3, salivary ducts of glands two and three; 
.«r, salivary valve ; ph, pharynx; lb, labium or lower lip, with its parts sepa- 
rated for display; mt, mentum or chin; »m, mouth; tax, maxilla; lp, 
labial palpi: /, ligula or tongue; b, bouton. 



40. " The queen at certain periods has the power of produ- 
cing between 2,000 and 3.000 eggs daily (98). A careful calcula- 
tion shows that 90,000 of these would occupy a cubic inch and 



GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 17 

weigh 270 grains. So that a good queen, for days or even weeks* 
in succession, would deposit, every twenty-four hours, between 
six and nine grains of highly-developed and extremely rich tissue- 
forming matter. Taking the lowest estimate, she then yields the 
incredible quantity of twice her own weight daily, or more accu- 
rately four times, since at this period, more than half her weight 
consists of eggs. Is not the reader ready to exclaim : What 
enormous powers of digestion she must possess ! and since pol- 
len is the only tissue-forming food of bees, what pellets of this 
must she constantly keep swallowing, and how large must be the 
amount of her dejections! But what are the facts ? Dissection 
reveals that her chyle stomach is smaller than that of the worker, 
and that at the time of her highest efforts, often scarcely a pollen 
grain is discoverable within it, its contents consisting of a trans- 
parent mass, microscopically indistinguishable from the so-called 
"royal jelly"; while the most practiced bee-men say they 
never saw the queen pass any dejections at all. These contradic- 
tions are utterly inexplicable, except upon the theory I propound 
and advocate. She does pass dejections, for I have witnessed 
the fact; but these are very watery." — (Cheshire.) 

Thus ac 'ording to Cheshire, the food eaten by the queen, 
during egg-laying, is already digested and assimilated by 
the bees, for her use. Her dejections which are scanty 
and liquid, are licked up by the workers, as are also the de- 
jections of the drones, if not too abundant. 

41. The other two pairs of glands, which are common to 
workers, queens, and drones, evidently produce the saliva. 
The functions of both must be the same, for they unite in 
the same canal (scZ, 2, 5, fig. 6), terminated by a valvule, 
which, passing though the mentum or chin (m£), opens at 
the base of the tongue. The saliva produced by them is 
used for different purposes. It helps the digestion ; it 
changes the chemical condition of the nectar (246) har- 
vested from the flowers ; it helps to knead the scales of wax 
(201) of which the combs are built, and perhaps the pro- 
polis (236) with which the hives are varnished. It is used 

* These facts have "been demonstrated so repeatedly, that they are as well 
established as the most common laws in the breeding of our domestic animals. 
2 



18 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 



also to dilute the honey when too thick, to moisten the 
(263) pollen grains, to wash the hairs when daubed with 
honey, etc. 

These glands }deld their saliva while the tongue of the 
bees is stretched out; but the upper glands (No. 1, fig. 6), 
which open on both sides of the pharynx or mouth (ph), can 
yield their chyle only when the tongue is bent backwards, 
to help feed the larva (64) lying at the bottom of the cell. 

42. The mouth of the bee has mandibles or outer jaws, 
which move sidewise, like those of ants and other insects, 
instead of up and down as in higher animals. These jaws 
are short, thick, without teeth, and beveled inside so as to 
form a hollow when joined together, as two spoons would do. 
With them, they manipulate the wax to build their comb, 
open the anthers of flowers to get the honey, and seize and 
hold, to drag them out, robbers or intruders, or debris of 
any kind. 






Fig. 7. 

Head of honey - 

hornet . 

(Magnified.) 



Fig 8. 
Head of honey- 
bee. 
(Magnified.) 



Fig. 9. 
Mandible of honey- 
hornet . 
(Magnified.) 



Fig. 10. 
Mandible of honey- 
bee. 
(Magnified.) 



43. Fig. 9 shows the jaws of the Mexican hornet highly 
magnified. Fig. 10 shows the jaws of the honey-bee, highly 
magnified. Notice the difference in the shape of the two, 
the saw-like appearance of the one, and the spatula shape 
of the other. A glance at these figures is enough to con- 
vince an} T intelligent horticulturist of the truth of Aristotle's 
remark — made more than two thousand years ago — that 
" bees hurt no kinds of sound fruit, but wasps and hornets 
are very destructive to them." 



GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 19 

We shall give further evidence concerning the correct- 
ness of this statement. (871) 

44. Below the antennae, the clypeus or shield (cl, fig. 6) 
projects, which is prolongated by an elastic rim called labrum 
or upper lip (Ibr). The pharynx is the mouth (_p7i), and 
the oesophagus (ce) the gullet, through which the food goes 
into the stomach. 

As we have already seen, the canals of the upper glands 
open on each side of the mouth, and discharge their chyle 
into it at will. 

45. The chin or mentum (mt) is not literally a part of 
the mouth. It can move forward and backward, and sup- 
ports several pieces, among which is the tongue, or proboscis, 
or ligula (Z). The tongue is not an extension of the chin, 
but has its root in it, and can only be partly drawn back 
into it, its extremity, when at rest, being folded back under 
the chin. 

46. There are, on each side of the tongue, the labial 
palpi or feelers* (&, fig. 11, and Ip, fig. 6), which are fastened 
to the chin by hinged joints. They are composed of four 
pieces each, the first two of which are broad, and the other 
two small and thin, and provided with sensitive hairs of a 
very fine fabric. Outside of the palpi are the maxillae (c, 
fig. 11, and mx, fig. 6) which in some insects have the func- 
tion of jaws, but which, in the bee, only serve, with the palpi, 
to enfold the tongue in a sort of tube, formed and opened 
at the will of the insect, and which, by a certain muscular 
motion, as also by the ability of the tongue to move up and 
down in this tube, force the food up into the mouth. 

47. The tongue is covered with hairs, which are of graded 
sizes, so that those nearest the tip or bouton are thin and 
flexible. It — the tongue — is grooved like a trough, the 
edges of which can also unite to form a tube, with perfect 

* Organs of taste according to Ley dig and Jobert . 



20 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 



joints. It is easily understood that if this tongue was a tube, 
the pollen grains when conveyed through it would obstruct 
it, especially when daubed with very thick honey. 

48. "A most beautiful adaptation here becomes evident. 
jSTectar gathered from blossoms needs conversion into honey. Its 
cane sugar must be changed into grape sugar, and this is accom- 
plished by the admixture of the salivary secretions of Systems 
Nos. 2 and 3 (sd, 2, 3, fig. 6), 
either one or both. The 
tongue is drawn into the 
mentum by the shortening 
of the retractor linguee mus- 
cle, which, as it contracts, 
diminishes the space above 
the salivary valve, and so 
pumps out the saliva, which 
mixes with the nectar as it 
rises, by methods we now 
understand. Bees, it has 
often been observed, feed on 
thick syrup slowly; the 
reason is simple. The thick 
syrup will not pass readily 
through minute passages 
without thinning by a fluid. 
This fluid is saliva, which is 
demanded in larger quanti- 
ties than the poor bees can 
supply. They are able, how- 
ever, to yield it in surprising 
volume, which also explains 
how it is that these little 




Fig. r. 

TONGUE AND APPENDAGES. 
(Magnified. From Matirice Girard.) 
, tongue; b, labial palpi; c, maxilla. 



marvels can so well clean themselves from the sticky body honey. 
The saliva is to them both soap and water, and the tongue and 
surrounding parts, after any amount of daubing, will soon shine 
with the lustre of a mirror.'" — (Cheshire.) 

49. The length of the tongue of the honey-bee is of great 
importance to bee-keepers. Some flowers, such as red clo- 
ver, have a corolla so deep, that few bees are able to gather 
the honey produced in them. Therefore, one of the chief 



GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 21 

aims of progressive bee-keepers, should be to raise bees with 
longer tongues. This can undoubtedly be done sooner or 
later, by careful selection, in the same way that all our do- 
mestic plants and animals have been improved in the past. 
For this, patience and time are required. 

50. The thorax is the intermediate part of the body. It 
is also called " corselet." It is formed of three rings sol- 
dered into one. Each of the three rings bears one pair of 
legs, on its under side ; and each of the last two rings bears 
a pair of wings, on its upper side ; making four wings and 
six legs, all fastened on the thorax. 

51 . Each leg is composed of nine joints (B, Plate IV), the 
two nearest the body (c, tr) being short. The next three 
are the femur (/), tibia (ti), and planta (p) also called 
metatarsus. The last four joints form the tarsus (t) or foot. 

52. The last joint of the tarsus, or tip of the foot, is pro- 
vided with two claws (cm, fig. 12), that cling to objects or 
to the surfaces on which the bee climbs. These claws can 
be folded, somewhat like those of a cat (A, fig. 12), or can 
be turned upwards (B, fig. 12) when the bees are hanging 
in clusters. When they walk on a polished surface, like 
the pane of a window, which the claws cannot grasp, the 
latter are folded down ; but there is between them a small 
rubber-like pocket, pulvillus (pv, A, B,) which secretes a 
sticky, " clammy " substance, that enables the bee to cling 
to the smoothest surfaces. House-flies and other insects 
cling to walls and windows by the same process. It was 
formerly asserted that insects cling to the smooth surfaces 
by air suction, but the above explanation is correct, and you 
can actually see " the footprints of a fly " on a pane of glass, 
with the help of a microscope, remnants of the " clammy " 
substance being quite discernible. B} T this ingenious ar- 
rangement, bees can walk indifferently upon almost any- 
thing, since wherever the claws fail, the pulvilli take their 
place. 



22 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 



53. "But another contrivance, equally beautiful, remains 
to be noticed. The pulvillus is carried folded in the middle (as 
at C, fig. 12), but opens out when applied to a surface, for it has 
at its upper part an elastic and curved rod (cr) which straightens 
as the pulvillus is pressed down, C and D, fig. 12, making this 
clear. The flattened-out pulvillus thus holds strongly while 
pulled, by the weight of the bee, along the surface, to which it 
adheres, but comes up at once if lifted and rolled off from its op- 
posite sides, just as we should peel a wet postage stamp from its 
envelope. The bee, then, is held securely till it attempts to lift 
the leg, when it is freed at once ; and, by this exquisite yet 
simple plan, it can fix and release each foot at least twenty 
times per second." — (Cheshire.) 




Fig. 12. 
BEE'S FOOT IX CLIMBING, SHOWING ACTION OF PULVILLUS. 

(Magnified 30 times . From Cheshire . ) 

A, position of the foot in climbing slippery surface or glass; pc, pul- 
villus; fh, feeling hairs ; an, auguiculus, or claw; /, tarsal joint. 

B, position of the foot in climbing rough surface. 

C, section of pulvillus just touching fiat surface; cr, curved rod. 

D, pulvillus applied to surface. 



54. The legs of bees, like all other parts of their body, 
are covered with hairs of varied shapes and sizes, the de- 
scription of which is beyond the limits of this work. We 
will confine ourselves to a short explanation of the uses, 
which have a direct bearing upon the work of tfie bee. 

The hairs of the front, or first, pair of legs (C, Plate IV) 
are especially useful in cleaning the eyes and the tongue, 
and gathering the pollen grains. 

55. On the metatarsus, the lower of the two largest joints 
of these front legs, is a rounded notch (E, a, Plate IV), 
closed when the leg is folded, by a sort of spur or velum, 



GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 



23 



(t>, C, E, H) fastened to the tibia, or upper large joint. 
I he learned Dr. Dubini, of Milan (L'Ape, Milan, 1881), 
speaks of it as being used to cleanse the antennae and the 
tongue of the pollen that sticks to them. Mr. Cheshire 
thinks it is used only to cleanse the antennae, from the fact 
that this notch, which has teeth like a comb (F, Plate IV), is 
found as well in the queen and the drone as in the worker, 
and that its aperture corresponds exactly to the different 
sizes of the antenna of each sex. (H, Plate IV.) 

56. The second pair of legs have no notch, but the lower 





Fig. 18. 
POSTERIOR LEGS. 
(Magnified. From Maurice Girard.) 
A, of the queen; B, of the worker (under side) ; C. of the worker (upper 
side) ; D, of the drone. 

extremity of the tibia bears a spur (D s, Plate IV) or spine, 
which is used in loosening the pellets of pollen, brought to 
the hive on the tibias of the posterior legs (Plate IV). This 
spur also helps in cleaning the wings. 

57. The posterior or hind legs are very remarkable, in 
several respects. Between the tibia and the metatarsus 
(B, ivp, Plate IV) they have an articulation, whose parts close 
like pincers, and which serve to loosen from the abdomen 
the scales of wax to be mentioned farther on (201). As 
neither the queen nor the drone produces wax, they are des- 
titute of this implement. 



24 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 

58. u But the chief interest centers on the two joints last men- 
tioned (ti, p, A. B., Plate IV), as a device for carrying the pollen of 
the blossom home to the hive. The metatarsus is enlarged into 
a sub-quadrangular form, constituting a fiattish plate, slightly con- 
vex on both surfaces. The outer face (p, A, Plate IV) is not remark- 
able, but the one next the body (p, B) is furnished with stiff 
combs, the teeth of which are horny, straight spines, set closely, 
and arranged in transverse rows across the joint, a little projecting 
above its plane, and the tips of one comb slightly overlapping 
the basis of the next. Their colour is reddish-brown ; and en- 
tangled in the combs, we almost invariably discover pollen gran- 
ules, which have been at first picked up by the thoracic hairs, 
but combed out by the constant play of the legs over the breast — 
in which work, the second pair, bearing a strong resemblance to 
the third, performs an important part." 

59. " So soon as the bees have loaded these combs, they do 
not return to the hive, but transfer the pollen to the hollow sides 
of the tibia, seen at ti, A. This concavity, corbicula, or pollen 
basket, is smooth and hairless, except at the edges, whence spring 
long, slender, curved spines, two sets following the line of the 
bottom and sides of the basket, while a third bends over its front. 
The concavity fits it to contain pollen, while the marginal hairs 
greatly increase its possible load, like the sloping stakes which 
the farmer places round the sides of his waggon when he desires 
to carry loose hay, the set bent over (see G, Plate IV) accomplish- 
ing the purpose of the cords by which he saves his property from 
being lost on the road. But a difficulty arises : How can the pol- 
len be transferred from the metatarsal comb to the basket above ? 
Easily ; for it is the left metatarsus that charges the right basket, 
and vice versa. The legs are crossed, and the metatarsus naturally 
scrapes its comb-face on the upper edge of the opposite tibia, in 
the direction from the base of the combs towards their tips. 
These upper hairs standing over wp, B, or close to ti, A (which are 
opposite sides of the same joint), are nearly straight, and pass 
between the comb teeth. The pollen, as removed, is caught by 
the bent-over hairs, and secured. Each scrap adds to the mass 
until the face of the joint is more than covered, and the hairs just 
embrace the pellet as we see it in the cross-section at G. The 
worker now hies homewards, and the spine, as a crow-bar, does 
its work."— (Cheshire.) 

60. The four wings, in two pairs, are supported by hoi- 



„ Plate 4. 




LEGS OF WORKER-BEE. 
(Magnified 10 times. From Cheshire.) 
A, third right leg, side from the body, ti , tibia, showing pollen basket; p, plantaor 
metatarsus; t, tarsus. B, third right leg, side next the body, c, coxa; tr, trochanter; 
ivp, pincers. C, front right leg. v, velum; b, brush; eb, eye-brush. D , second right 
leg. b, brush; E, joint of first leg, more enlarged, v, velum; a, autenna comb; 
b, brush. F, teeth of antenna comb, magnified 200 times. G, cross-section of tibia 
through pollen-basket, n; nerve; h, holding hairs; fa, farina or pollen. H, an- 
tenna in process of cleaning, v, velum; s, scraping edge; a, antenna; I, section of 
leg; c, antenna comb. 



GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 



25 



low nervures or ribs, and have a great power of resistance. 
In flight, the small wings are fastened to the large ones by 
small hooks (fig. 14), located on the edge of their outer 
nervure, that catch in a fold of the inner edge of the large 
wings. Thus united, they present to the air a stronger 
surface and give the bees a greater power of flight. No 
doubt, a single pair of wings of the same surface would have 
better attained the desired aim, but their width would have 
annoyed the bees in going inside of the cells, either to feed 




Mg. 14. 
WINGS OF THE HOXEY-EEE. 

(Magnified. From Cheshire.) 

A, anterior wing, underside; p,p, plait. 

B, posterior wing, under side; h,h, hooklets. 

C, cross-section of wings through line a, b, showing hooklets in plait. 

the larvae or to deposit supplies. Imagine a blue fly trying, 
with its wide wings, to go inside of a cell ! 

61. " Mr. Gaurichon has noticed that when the bees fan, 
or ventilate the entrance of the hive, their wings are not 
hooked together as they are in flight, but act independent- 
ly of one another." (Dubini, 1881.) A German entomolo- 
gist, Landois, states that, according to the pitch of their 
hum, the bees' flight must at times be equal to 440 vibra- 
tions in a second, but he noticed that this speed could not 



26 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 



be kept up without fatigue. It is well known that the more 
rapid the vibrations, the higher the pitch. 

62. Digesting Apparatus. — The honey obtained from 
the blossoms, after mixing with the saliva (41), and passing 
through the mouth and the oesophagus, is conveyed into the 
honey-sack. 

63. This organ, located in the abdomen, is not larger than 
a very small pea, and so perfectly transparent as to appear, 
when filled, of the same color as its contents ; it is prop- 
erly the first stomach, and is surrounded by muscles which 

enable the bee to compress 
it, and empty its contents 
through her proboscis into 
the cells. She can also, 
at will, keep a supply, to 
be digested, at leisure, 
when leaving with a 
swarm, (418), or while 
in the cluster during the 
cold of winter (620), and 
use it only as fast as nec- 
essary. For this purpose, 
the honey-sack is supplied 
at its lower extremity, in- 
side, with a round ball, 
which Burmeister has 
called the stomach-mouth, 
and which has been beau- 
tifully described by Schie- 
menz (1883). It opens 
by a complex valve and 
connects the hone3~-sack 
with the digesting-stomach, through a tube or canal, pro- 
j ecting inside the latter. This canal is lined with hairs point- 
ing downward, which prevent the solid food, such as pollen 




Fig. 15. 

DIGESTING APPARATUS. 

(Magnified . From Maurice Girard . ) 

a, tongue; 6, oesophagus : c\ honey-sack; 

d, stomach; e, malpighiau tubes;/, small 

intestine; g, large intestine. 



GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 27 

grains, from returning to the honey-sack. Cheshire affirms 
that this stomach-mouth, which protrudes into the honey- 
sack, acts as a sort of sieve, and strains the honey from the 
grains of pollen floating in it, appropriating them for di- 
gestion, and allowing the honey to flow back into the sack. 
The bee could thus, at will, ;i eat or drink from the mixed 
diet she carries." 

64. According to Schonfeld, (Illustrierte Bienenzeitung) 
the chyle, or milky food which is used to feed the young lar- - 
vae, — and which we have shown to be, most probably, the 
product of the upper pair of glands (39-40), — would be 
produced from the digesting-stomach, which he and others 
call cl^de-stomach. Although we are not competent in the 
matter, we would remark that the so-called chyle-stomach 
produces chyme, or digested food, from which the chyle, or 
nourishing constituent, is absorbed by the cell-lining of the 
stomach and of the intestines, and finally converted into 
blood. We do not see how this chyle could be regurgitated, 
by the stomach, to be returned to the mouth. 

65. In mammals, the chyliferous vessels do not exist in 
the stomach, but in tie intestine, the function of the stom- 
ach being only to digest the food by changing it into chyme, 
from which the chyle is afterwards separated, for the use of 
the body. 

66. Again, in the mammals, the glands which produce 
milk are composed of small clusters of acini, which take 
their secretions from the blood and empty them into vessels 
terminating at the surface of the breast. The action of the 
upper or chyle gland (40), in the bee, is exactly similar to 
the action of those lacteal glands, and the fact that this 
gland is absent in the queen and in the drone is, to us, pos- 
itive evidence that the chylous or lacteal food (given the 
larvae) is produced by these glands alone, and not by the 
direct action of the digesting-stomach. 

67. The food arriving in the stomach is mixed with the 



28 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 



gastric juice, which helps its transformation, and the undu- 
lating motion of the stomach sends it to its lower extremity, 
toward the intestines. But, before entering into them, the 
chyme receives the product of several glands which have 
been named Malpighian tubes (e, fig. 15) from the scientist 
Malpighi, who was the first to notice them. A grinding 
motion of the muscles placed at the junction of the stomach 




Fig. 16. (From Girard.) 

NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE HONEY-BEE. (Magnified.) 

A, in the larva; B, in the bee. 



with the intestines, acting on the grains of pollen not 
yet sufficiently dissolved, prepares them to yield their 
assimilable particles to the absorbing cells in the walls of 
the small intestine. Thence they go into the large intes- 
tine, from which the refuse matter is discharged by the 
worker-bees, while on the wing. We italicize the words, 



GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 



29 



because this fact has considerable bearing on the health of 
the bees, when confined by cold or other causes, as will be 
seen farther on. (639.) 

68. " The nervous system (fig. 16) of the honey-bee, the seat 
of sensation and of the understanding, is very interesting, on ac- 
count of the profound difference which it presents when compared 
with the nervous system of the larva. The honey-bee, more per- 
fect in organization than the butterfly, begins as a larva deficient 
in legs, very much inferior to the caterpillar from which the but- 
terfly proceeds. It is very interesting to notice, that the drones, 
although larger than the workers, especially in the head, have a 
smaller brain. This state of things coincides with the fact that 
the drones are not intelligent, while no one can refuse gleams 
of intelligence to the worker-bees, as nurses and builders." 
— (Girard.) 




Fig. 17. 
A, HEART OP THE HOJSTEY-BEE. B, RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. 

(Magnified. From Girard.) 

69. The heart, or organ of the circulation of the blood, 
formed of five elongated rooms, in the abdomen, is termin- 
ated in the thorax, and in the head, by the aorta, which is 



30 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 

not contractible. Each room of the heart presents, on 
either side, an opening for the returning blood. The blood, 
" soaking through the body" (Cheshire), comes in contact 
with the air contained in the tracheal ramifications, where it 
is arterialized, or in plainer words, renovated, before com- 
ing back to the heart. 

The bee is not provided with any discernible blood or 
lymphatic vessels save the aorta, and its blood is colorless. 

TO. The breathing organ of the bee is spread through its 
whole body. It is formed of membranous vessels, or tra- 
cheae, whose ramifications spread and penetrate into the 
organs, as the rootlets of a plant sink down into the soil. 
Connected with these, there is, on each side of the abdomi- 
nal cavity, a large tracheal bag, variable in form and dimen- 
sions, according to the quantity of air that it contains. 
Bees breathe through holes, or spiracles, which are placed 
on each side of the body, and open into the tracheal bags 
and tracheae. 

71. "The act of respiration consists in the alternate dilatation 
and contraction of the abdominal segments. By filling, or emp- 
tying the air-bags, the bee can change her specific gravity. 
When a bee is preparing herself for flight, the act of respiration 
resembles that of birds, under similar circumstances. At the mo- 
ment of expanding her wings, which is indeed an act of respira- 
tion, the spiracles or breathing holes are expanded, and the air, 
rushing into them, is extended into the whole body, which by 
the expansion of the air-bags, is enlarged in bulk, and rendered 
of less specific gravity ; so that when the spiracles are closed, at 
the instant the insect endeavors to make the first stroke with, 
and raise itself upon, its wings, it is enabled to rise in the air, 
and sustain a long and powerful flight, with but little muscular 
exertion." * * * " Newport has shown that the develop- 
ment of heat in insects, just as in vertebrates, depends on the 
quantity and activity of respiration and the volume of circu- 
lation."— (Packard, Salem, 1S69.) 

72. Mr. Cheshire notices that bees, even in full, vigor- 
ous youth and strength, are not at at all times able to take 



GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 31 

flight. The reader may have noticed that if they are fright- 
ened, or even touched with the finger, they will occasionally 
move only by slight jumps. This temporary inability to 
fly, is due to the small quantity of air that their tracheal 
sacs contain. They were at rest, their blood circulated 
slowly, their body was comparatively heavy ; but when their 
wings were expanded, the tracheal bags, that were as flat as 
ribbons, were soon filled with air, and they were ready to 
take wing. 

Practical Apiarists well know that thej^ may be shaken off 
the comb, and gathered up, with a shovel, with a spoon, or 
even with the hands, to be weighed or measured in open ves- 
sels, like seeds. The foregoing remarks give the explana- 
tion of this fact. 

73. When the tracheal bags are filled with air, bees, 
owing to their peculiar structure, can best discharge the 
residues contained in their intestines. 

The queen is differently formed, her ovaries occupying 
part of the space belonging to the air-sacks in the worker, 
hence her discharges, like those of the drones (190), take 
place in the hive. (40. ) 

■74. "The tracheous bags of the abdomen, which we would 
be tempted to name abdominal lungs, hold in reserve the air need- 
ed to arterialize the blood and to produce muscular strength 
and heat, in connection with the powerful flight of the insect. 
Heat is indispensable, to keep up the high temperature of the 
hive, for the building of comb and rearing of brood. The aerial 
vesicles increase, by their resonance, the intensity of the hum- 
ming, and are used also like the valve of a balloon, to slacken or 
increase the speed of the flight, by the variation of density, ac- 
cording to the quantity or weight, of the air that they contain. 
This accumulated air is also the means of preventing asphyxy, 
which the insects resist a long time. Lastly, these air-bags help 
in the mating of the sexes, which takes place in the air; the 
swelling of the vesicles being indispensable to the bursting forth 
of the male organs."— (Girard.) 

75. The hum that is produced by the vibration of the 



32 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 

wings is different in each of the three kinds of inhabitants 
of the hive, and easily recognizable to a practiced ear. The 
hum of the drone is the most sonorous. But worker-bees, 
when angry or frightened, or when they call each other, 
emit different and sharper sounds. On the production of 
these sounds, bee-keepers and entomologists are far from 
being agreed. 

"Inside of every opening of the aerial tubes is a valvular 
muscle, which helps to control the mechanism of respiration. 
This can be opened or closed at will, by the bee, to prevent the 
ingress, or egress, of air. It is by this means that the air is kept 
in the large tracheous bags and decreases the specific gravity of 
the insect. The main resonant organ of the bee is placed in front 
of this stopping muscle, at the entrance of the trachea." 

" The humming is not produced solely by the vibrating of the 
wings, as is generally admitted. Chabrier, Burmeister, Lan- 
dois, have discovered in the humming, three different sounds : 
the first, caused by the vibrating of the wings ; the second, 
sharper, by the vibration of the rings of the abdomen ; the third, 
the most intense and acute, produced by a true vocal mechanism, 
placed at the orifices of the aerial tubes." — (Girard.) 

76. The bee-keeper who understands the language of 
bees, can turn it to his advantage. Here are some ex- 
amples : 

b ' When something seems to irritate the bees, who are in front 
of a hive, on the alighting-board, they emit a short sound, z-2-z-, 
jumping at the same time towards the hive. This is a warning. 
Then they fly and examine the object of their fears, remaining 
sustained by their wings, near the suspected object, and emit- 
ting at the same time, a distinct and prolonged sound. This is a 
sign of great suspicion. If the object moves quickly, or other- 
wise shows hostile intent, the song is changed into a piercing 
cry for help, in a voice whistling with anger. They dash for- 
ward violently and blindly, and try to sting. 

" When they are quiet and satisfied, their voice is the hum- 
ming of a grave tune ; or, if they do not move their wings, an 
allegro murmur. If they are suddenly caught or compressed, 
the sound is one of distress. If a hive is jarred at a time when 
all the bees are quiet, the mass speedily raise a hum, which 



GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 33 

ceases as suddenly. In a queenless hive, the sound is doleful, 
lasts longer and at times increases in force. When bees swarm, 
the tune is clear and gay, showing manifest happiness."— (GEttl- 
Klauss, 1836.) 

77. The German pastor Stahala has published a very 
complete study on the language of bees, which has appeared 
in some of the bee-papers of Italy, France and America. 
We do not consider it as altogether accurate ; but there are 
some sounds described that all bee-keepers ought to study, 
especially the doleful wail of colonies which have lost their 
queen, and have no means of rearing another. 

78. The Sting. — The sting of the bee, a terror to so 
many, is indispensable to her preservation. Without it, 
the attraction, which honey presents to man and animals, 
must have caused the complete destruction of this precious 
insect, years ago. 

79. This organ is composed, 1st, of a whitish vesicle, or 
poison sack, about the size of a small mustard seed, located 
in the abdomen, in which the venomous liquid is stored. 
This liquid is elaborated in two long canals, similar in ap- 
pearance to the Malpighian tubes, each of which is termin- 
ated at its upper extremity, by a small round bag or en- 
largement. It is similar to formic acid, although perhaps 
more poisonous. 

80. 2d, In the last ring of the abdomen, and connected 
with the poison sack, is a firm and sharp sheath, open in its 
whole length, which supports the sting proper, and acts in- 
dependently of it. The bee can force this sheath out of 
the abdomen, or draw it in, at will. 

81. 3d, The sting is composed of two spears of a pol- 
ished, chestnut-colored, horny substance, which, supported 
by the sheath, make a very sharp weapon. In the act of 
stinging, the spears emerge from the sheath, about two- 
thirds of their length. Between them and on each of them, 
is a small groove, through which the liquid, coming from 
the poison sack, is ejected into the wound, 

3 



34 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 



82. Each spear of the sting has about nine barbs, which 
are turned back like those of a fish hook, and prevent the 
sting from being easily withdrawn. When the insect is 
prepared to sting, one of these spears, having its point a 
little longer than the other, first darts into the flesh, and 




Fig. 18. 
THE STING OF THE WORKER-BEE, AND ITS APPENDAGES. 

(Magnified. From Girard . ) 
a, sting; b, poison-sack; c,c, poison glands; c/,d, secreting bags. 

being fixed by its foremost barb, the other strikes in also, 
and they alternately penetrate deeper and deeper, till they 
acquire a firm hold of the flesh with their barbed hooks. 

"Meanwhile, the poison is forced to the end of the spears, 
by much the same process which carries the venom from the 
tooth of a viper when it bites."— (Girard.) 



GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 35 

83. The muscles, though invisible to the eye, are yet 
strong enough to force the sting, to the depth of one-twelfth 
of an inch, through the thick skin of a man's hand. 

" The action of the sting," says Paley, " affords an example of 
the union of chemistry and mechanism ; of chemistry, in respect 
to the venom which can produce such powerful effects ; of mech- 
anism, as the sting is a compound instrument. The machinery 
would have been comparatively useless, had it not been for the 
chemical process by which, in the insect's body, honey is con- 
verted into poison; and on the other hand, the poison would have 
been ineffectual, without an instrument to wound, and a syringe 
to inject it." 

"Upon examining the edge of a very keen razor by the micro- 
scope, it appears as broad as the back of a pretty thick knife, 
rough, uneven, and full of notches and furrows, and so far from 
anything like sharpness, that an instrument as blunt as this 
seemed to be, would not serve even to cleave wood. An exceed- 
ingly small needle being also examined, it resembled a rough 
iron bar out of a smith's forge. The sting of a bee viewed 
through the same instrument, showed everywhere a polish 
amazingly beautiful, without the least flaw, blemish, or inequal- 
ity, and ended in a point too fine to be discerned." 

84. As the extremit}^ of the sting is barbed like an ar- 
row, the bee can seldom withdraw it, if the substance into 
which she darts it is at all tenacious. A strange peculiarity 
of the sting and the muscles pertaining to it, is their spas- 
modic action, which continues quite a while, even after the 
bee has torn herself away, and has left them attached to the 
wound. In losing her sting, she often parts with a portion 
of her intestines, and of necessity soon perishes. Wasps 
and hornets are different from bees in this respect, for 
they can sting repeatedly without endangering their lives. 

Although bees pay so dearly for the exercise of their pat- 
riotic instincts, still, in defense of home and its sacred 
treasures, they 

" Deem life itself to vengeance well resign'd, 

" Die on the wound and leave their sting behind." 



36 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 

85. The sting is not, however, always lost. When a 
bee prepares to sting, she usually curves her abdomen so 
that she can drive in her sting perpendicularly. To with- 
draw it, she turns around the wound. This probably rolls 
up its barbs, so that it comes out more readily. If it had 
been driven obliquely instead of perpendicularly, as some- 
times happens, she could never have extracted it by turning 
around the wound. 

86. Sometimes, only the poison-bag and sting are torn 
off, then she may live quite a while without them, and 
strange to say, seems to be more angry than ever, and per- 
sists in making useless attempts to sting. 

87. If a hive is opened during a Winter day, when the 
weather does not permit the bees to fly, a great number of 
them raise their abdomens, and thrust out their stings, in a 
threatening manner. A minute drop of poison can be seen 
on their points, some of which is occasionally flirted into 
the eyes of the Apiarist, and causes severe irritation. The 
odor of this poison is so strong and peculiar, that it is eas- 
ily recognized. In warm weather it excites the bees, and so 
provokes their anger, that when one has used its sting in 
one spot on skin or clothes, others are inclined to thrust 
theirs in the same place. 

88. The sting, when accompanied by the poison-sack, 
may inflict wounds hours, and even days, after it has been 
removed, or torn, from the bod}^ of the bee. But when 
buried in honey, its poison is best preserved, for it is very 
volatile, and when exposed to the air, evaporates in a 
moment. The stings of bees, which, perchance, may be 
found in broken combs of honey, often retain their power, 
and we have known of a person's being stung in the mouth, 
by carelessly eating hone}" in which bees had been buried 
by the fall of the combs. 

Mr. J. R. Bledsoe, in the American Bee Journal, for 
1870, writes: 



GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 37 

89. "It may often happen that one or both of the chief parts 
of the sting- are left in the wound, when the sheath is with- 
drawn, but are rarely perceived, on account of their minuteness; 
the person stung congratulating himself, at the same time, that 
the sting has been extracted. I have had occasion to prove this 
fact repeatedly in my own person and in others. * * * The 
substance of the sting, on account of its nature is readily dis- 
solved by the fluids of the body, consequently giving irritation 
as a foreign body for only a short time comparatively. The sting 
when boiled in water becomes tender and easily crushed." 

For further particulars concerning the sting, we will refer 
our readers to the chapter entitled "Handling Bees." — 
(378.) 

90. Before terminating this comparatively short, but 
perhaps, to many of our readers, tedious study of the or- 
gans of the bee, we desire to commend Messrs. Girarcl, 
Packard, Cook, Schiemenz, Dubini, and especially Mr. F. 
Cheshire, who, by their writings, have helped us in this 
part of our undertaking. We must add also that the more 
we study bees, the more persuaded we are that Mr. Packard 
was right when he wrote : 

91. " Besides these structural characters as animals, endowed 
with instinct, and a kind of reason, differing, perhaps, only in 
degree, from that of man, these insects outrank all the articu- 
lates. In the unusual differentiation of the individual into 
males, females, and sterile workers, and a consequent subdivision 
of labor between them ; in dwelling in large colonies ; in their 
habits and in their relation to man as domestic animals, subserv- 
ient to his wants, the bees possess a combination of characters 
which are not found in any other sub-order of insects, and which 
rank them first and highest in the insect series." — ("Guide to the 
Study of Insects.") 

92. One of their peculiarities, is, especially, the care 
given by most of the hymenopters to their progeny. We 
will show how bees nurse their young. Other insects of 
the same sub-order construct their nests of clay or paper, 
or burrow in the wood, or in the earth. All prepare for 



38 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 

their young a sufficient supply of food ; some of pollen and 
honey, others of animal substance. Several kinds of wasps 
provide their nests with living insects, spiders, caterpillars, 
etc., that they have previously paralyzed, but without kill- 
ing them, by piercing them with their stings. 

Ants seem to possess even a greater solicitude. When 
their nests are overthrown, they carry their larvae to some 
hidden place out of danger. 

We have exhibited the use of the organs of bees as a 
race. We will now examine the character of each of the 
three kinds of inhabitants of the bee-hive. 



The Queen. 

93. Although hone}- -bees have attracted the attention 
of naturalists for ages, the sex 
of the inmates of the bee-hive 
was, for a long time, a nrvstery. 
The Ancient authors, having no- 
ticed in the hive, a bee, larger 
than the others, and differently 
shaped, had called it the "King 
Bee." 

94. To our knowledge, it was an English bee-keeper, 
Butler, who, first among bee-writers, affirmed in 1609, that 
the King Bee was really a queen, and that he had seen her 
deposit eggs. (" Feminine Monarchy.") 

95. This discovery seems to have passed unnoticed, for 
Swammerdam, who ascertained the sex of bees by dissec- 
tion, is held as having been the first to proclaim the sex of 
the Queen bee. (Leyde, 1737.) A brief extract from the 
celebrated Dr. Boerhaave's Memoir of Swammerdam, show- 
ing the ardor of this naturalist, in his study of bees, should 
put to blush the arrogance of those superficial observers, 




THE QUEEN. 39 

who are too wise to avail themselves of the knowledge of 

others : 

"This treatise on Bees proved so fatiguing a performance, that 
Swamrnerdam never afterwards recovered even the appearance 
of his former health and vigor. He was most continually en- 
gaged by day in making observations, and as constantly by night 
in recording them by drawings and suitable explanations. 

" His daily labor began at six in the morning, when the sun 
afforded him light enough to survey such minute objects ; and 
from that hour till twelve, he continued without interruption, all 
the while exposed in the open air to the scorching heat of the 
sun, bareheaded, for fear of intercepting his sight, and his head 
in a manner dissolving into sweat under the irresistible ardors of 
that powerful luminary. And if he desisted at noon, it was only 
because the strength of his eyes was too much weakened by the 
extraordinary afflux of light, and the use of microscopes, to con- 
tinue any longer upon such small objects. 

" He often wished, the better to accomplish his vast, unlimited 
views, for a year of perpetual heat and light to perfect his inqui- 
ries ; with a polar night, to reap all the advantages of them by 
proper drawings and descriptions." 

96. The name of queen was then given to the mother 
bee, although she in no way governs, but seems to reign 
like a beloved mother in her family. 

97. She is the only perfect female in the hive, the laying 
of eggs being her sole function ; and she acquits herself so 
well of this duty, that it is not uncommon to find queens, 
who lay more than 3,500 eggs per day, for several weeks in 
succession during the height of the breeding season. In 
our observing hives we have seen them lay at the rate of six 
eggs in a minute. The fecundity of the female of the white 
ant is, however, much greater than this, being at the rate of 
sixty eggs a minute ; but her eggs are simply extruded from 
her body, and carried by the workers into suitable nurser- 
ies, while the queen-bee herself deposits her eggs in their 
appropriate cells. 

98. This number of 3,500, that a good queen can lay 



40 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 

per day, will seem exaggerated to many bee-keepers, own- 
ers of small hives. Thejr will perhaps ask how such lay- 
ing can be ascertained. Nothing is easier. Let us suppose 
that we have found a hive, with 1,200 square inches of 
comb occupied by brood. As there are about 55 worker- 
cells to the square inch of comb (217), 27 to 28 on each 
side, we multiply 1,200 by 55, and we have 66,000 as the 
total number of cells occupied at one time. Now, it takes 
about 21 days for the brood to develop from the egg to the 
perfect insect, and we have 3,145 as the average number of 
eggs laid daily by that queen, in 21 days. Of course, this 
amount is not absolutely accurate, as the combs are not 
always entirely filled, but it will suffice to show, within 
perhaps a few hundred, the actual fecundity of the queen. 
Such numbers can be found every year, in most of the 
good colonies, provided that the limited capacity of the 
hive will not prevent the queen from laying to the utmost 
of her ability. 

99. The laying of the queen is not equal at all seasons. 
She lays most during the spring and summer months, pre- 
vious to the honey crop and during its flow. In late autumn 
and winter months, she lays but little. 

100. Her shape is widely different from that of the 
other bees. While she is not near so bulky as a drone, her 
body is longer ; and as it is considerably more tapering, or 
sugar-loaf in form, than that of a worker, she has a some- 
what wasp-like appearance. Her wings are much shorter 
in proportion than those of the drone, or worker ; * the 
under part of her body is of a golden color, and the upper 
part usually darker than that of the other bees.| Her mo- 
tions are generally slow and matronly, although she can, 
when she pleases, move with astonishing quickness. No 
colony can long exist without the presence of this all-impor- 

*The wings of the queen are in realit// longer than those of the Avorker. 
t This applies only to queens of the "black or common race. 



THE QUEEN. 41 

tant insect ; but must as surely perish, as the body without 
the spirit must hasten to inevitable decay. 

101. The queen is treated with the greatest respect and 
affection by the bees. A circle of her loving offspring often 
surround her, testifying in various ways their dutiful re- 
gard ; some gently embracing her with their antennae, others 
offering her food from time to time, and all of them politely 
backing out of her way, to give her a clear path when she 
moves over the combs. If she is taken from them, the 
whole colony is thrown into a state of the most intense agi- 
tation as soon as they ascertain their loss ; all the labors of 
'the hive are abandoned ; the bees run wildly over the combs, 
and frequently rush from the hive in anxious search for 
their beloved mother. If they cannot find her, they return 
to their desolate home, and by their sorrowful tones reveal 
their deep sense of so deplorable a calamity. Their note at 
such times, more especially when they first realize their loss, 
is of a peculiarly mournful character ; it sounds somewhat 
like a succession of wailings on the minor key, and can no 
more be mistaken by an experienced bee-keeper, for their 
ordinary happy hum (76), than the piteous moanings of a 
sick child could be confounded by the anxious mother with 
its joyous crowings when overflowing with health and hap- 
piness. We shall give, in this connection, a description of 
an interesting experiment. 

102. A populous stock was removed, in the morning, to 
a new place, and an empty hive put upon its stand. Thous- 
ands of workers which were ranging the fields, or which left 
the old hive after its removal, returned to the familiar spot. 
It was truly affecting to witness their grief and despair ; 
they flew in restless circles about the place where once stood 
their happy home, entering the empty hive continually, and 
expressing in various ways, their lamentations over so cruel 
a bereavement. Towards evening, ceasing to take wing, 
they roamed in restless platoons, in and out of the hive, and 



42 PHYSIOLOGY OE THE HONEY-BEE. 

over its surface, as if in search of some lost treasure. A 
small piece of brood-comb was then given to them, contain- 
ing worker-eggs and worms. The effect produced by its 
introduction took place much quicker than can be described. 
Those which first touched it raised a peculiar note, and in a 
moment, the comb was covered with a dense mass of bees ; 
as they recognized, in this small piece of comb, the means 
of deliverance, despair gave place to hope, their restless 
motions and mournful voices ceased, and a cheerful hum 
proclaimed their delight. If some one should enter a build- 
ing filled with thousands of persons tearing their hair, beat- 
ing their breasts, and by piteous cries, as well as frantic 
gestures, giving vent to their despair, and could by a single 
word cause all these demonstrations of agony to give place 
to smiles and congratulations, the change would not be more 
instantaneous than that produced when the bees received 
the brood-comb ! 

The Orientals called the honey-bee " Deborah; She that 
speaketh." Would that this little insect might speak, in 
words more eloquent than those of man's device, to those 
who reject any of the doctrines of revealed religion, with the 
assertion that they are so improbable, as to labor under a 
fatal a priori objection. Do not all the steps in the devel- 
opment of a queen from the worker-egg, labor under the 
very same objection? and have they not, for this reason been 
formerly regarded, by many bee-keepers, as unworthy of 
belief? If the favorite argument of infidels will not stand 
the test, when applied to the wonders of the bee-hive, is it 
entitled to serious weight, when, by objecting to religious 
truths, they arrogantly take to task the Infinite Jehovah for 
what He has been pleased to do or to teach? With no 
more latitude than is claimed by such objectors, it were 
easy to prove that a man is under no obligation to believe 
any of the wonders of the bee-hive, even although he is him- 



THE QUEEN. 



43 



self an intelligent eye-witness to their substantial truth.* 

103. The process of rearing Queen-bees will now be par- 
ticularly described. Early in the season, if a hive becomes 
very populous, and if the bees make preparations for swarm- 
ing, a number of royal cells 
are begun, being commonly 
constructed upon those edges 
of the combs which are not 
attached to the sides of the 
hive. These cells somewhat 
resemble a small pea-nut, 
and are about an inch deep, 
and one -third of an inch in 
diameter : being very thick, 
they require much wax for 
their construction. They are 
seldom seen in a perfect state 
after the hatching of the 
queen, as the bees cut them 
down to the shape of a small 
acorn-cup (fig. 20). These 
queen-cells, while in prog- 
ress, receive a very unusual 

amount of attention from the workers. There is scarcely a 
second in which a bee is not peeping into them ; and as fast 
as one is satisfied, another pops in her head to report prog- 
ress, or increase the supply of food. Their importance to 
the community might easily be inferred from their being 
the center of so much attraction. 

104. While the other cells open sideways, the queen-cells 
always hang with their mouth downwards. Some Apiarists 




Fig. 20. 
QUEEN T -CELLS IN PROGRESS. 



* The passages referring to religious subjects have been nearly all retained in 
this revision, at Mr . Langslroth' a request, even when not in accordance with 
our views. As intelligent men are always tolerant, we know our readers will 
not object to them. 



44 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 

think that this peculiar position affects, in some way, the 
development of the royal larvae ; while others, having ascer- 
tained that they are uninjured if placed in any other posi- 
tion, consider this deviation as among the inscrutable 
mysteries of the bee-hive. So it seemed to us until convinced, 
by a more careful observation, that they open downwards 
simply to save room. The distance between the parallel 
ranges of comb in the hive is usually too small for the royal 
cells to open sideways, without interfering with the opposite 
cells. To economize space, the bees put them on the unoc- 
cupied edges of the comb, where there is plenty of room for 
such very large cells. 

105. The number of royal cells in a hive varies greatly ; 
sometimes there are only two or three, ordinarily not less 
than five ; and occasionally, more than a dozen. 

Some races of bees have a disposition to raise a greater 
number of queen-cells than others. At the Toronto meet- 
ing of the North American Bee-keepers' Association, in 
September, 1883, Mr. D. A. Jones, the noted Canadian im- 
porter of Syrian and Cyprian bees, and publisher of the 
Canadian Bee Journal, exhibited a comb containing about 
eighty queen-cells, built by a colony of Syrian bees (560). 
Such cases are rare in the hive of any other race. 

106. As it is not intended that the young queens should 
all be of the same age, the ro} T al-cells are not all begun at 
the same time. It is not fully settled how the eggs are de- 
posited in these cells. In some few instances, we have 
known the bees to transfer the eggs from common to queen- 
cells ; and this may be their general method of procedure. 
Mr. Wagner put some queenless bees, brought from a dis- 
tance, into empty combs that had lain for two years in his 
garret. When supplied with brood, they raised their queen 
in this old comb ! Mr. Richard Colvin, of Baltimore, and 
other Apiarian friends, have communicated to us instances 
almost as striking. Yet, Huber has proved that bees do 



THE QUEEN. 45 

not ordinarily transport the eggs of the queen from one cell 
to another. We shall hazard the conjecture, that, in a 
crowded state of the hive, the queen deposits her eggs in 
cells on the edges of the comb, some of which are afterwards 
changed by the workers into royal cells. Such is a queen's 
instinctive hatred of her own kind, that it seems improbable 
that she should be intrusted with even the initiatory steps 
for securing a race of successors. 

(For further particulars concerning the raising of large 
numbers of queen-cells, see 515.) 

107. The egg which is destined to produce a queen-bee 
does not differ from the egg intended to become a worker ; 
but the young queen-larvae are much more largely supplied 
with food than the other larvae ; so that they seem to lie in 
a thick bed of jelly, a portion of which may usually be 
found at the base of their cells, soon after they have hatched, 
while the food given to the worker-larvae after three days, 
and for the last days of their development, is coarser and 
more sparingly given, as will be seen farther on. 

108. The effects produced on the royal larvae by their 
peculiar treatment are so wonderful, that they were at first 
rejected as idle whims, by those who had neither been eye- 
witnesses to them, nor acquainted with the opportunities 
enjoyed by others for accurate observation. They are not 
only contrary to all common analogies, but seem marvelous- 
ly strange and improbable. The most important of these 
effects we shall briefly enumerate. 

1st. The peculiar mode in which the worm designed for a 
queen is treated causes it to arrive at maturity almost one- 
third earlier than if it had been reared a worker. And yet, 
as it is to be much more fully developed, according to ordi- 
nary analogy, it should have had a slower growth. 

2d. Its organs of reproduction are completely developed, 
so that it can fulfill the office of a mother. 

3d. Its size, shape, and color are greatly changed; its 



46 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 



lower jaws are shorter, its head rounder, and its abdomen 
without the receptacles for secreting wax ; its hind legs have 
neither brushes nor baskets, and its sting is curved (fig. 21), 
and one- third longer than that of a worker. 







Fig. 21. 
THE STIXG OF THE QUEEN. 
(Magnified. From Girard.) 
a, a, bran ches of the oviduct; c, oviduct; b, spermatheca; d, sting; 
e, poison-sack; /, gland. 

4th. Its instincts are entirely changed. Reared as a 
worker, it would have thrust out its sting at the least provo- 
cation ; whereas now, it may be pulled limb from limb with- 
out attempting to sting. As a worker, it would have treated 
a queen with the greatest consideration ; but now, if brought 
in contact with another queen, it seeks to destroy her as a 
rival. As a worker, it would frequently have left the hive, 
either for labor or exercise ; as a queen, it never leaves it 
after impregnation, except to accompany a new swarm. 

5th. The term of its life is remarkably lengthened. As a 
worker, it would not have lived more than six or seven 
months ; as a queen, it may live seven or eight times as 



THE QUEEN. 47 

long. All these wonders rest on the impregnable basis of 
demonstration, and instead of being witnessed only by a 
select few, are now, by the use of the movable-comb hive, 
familiar sights to any bee-keeper who prefers an acquaint- 
ance with facts, to caviling and sneering at the labors of 
others. 

109. The process of rearing queens, to meet some spe- 
cial emergency, is even more wonderful than the one already 
described. If the bees have worker-eggs, or worms not 
more than three days old, they make one large cell out of 
three, by nibbling away the partitions of two cells adjoining 
a third. Destroying the eggs or worms in two of these cells, 
they place before the occupant of the other, the usual food 
of the young queens ; and by enlarging its cell, give it ample 
space for development.* As a security against failure, they 
usually start a number of queen-cells, for several days in 
succession. 

110. Duration of Development. — The eggs hatch in 
three days after they are laid. The small worm which is 
intended to produce a queen, is six days in its larval state, 
and seven in its transformation into a chrysalis and winged 
insect. These periods are not absolutely fixed ; being 
of shorter or longer duration, according to the warmth 
of the hive and the care given by the bees. In from ten to 
sixteen daysf they are in possession of a new queen, in all 
respects resembling one reared in the natural way ; while 
the eggs in the adjoining cells, which have been developed 
as workers, are nearly a week longer in coming to maturity. 

111. The Virgin Queen. — Feeble and pale, in the first 
moments after her birth, the young queen, as soon as she 

* It was a German bee-keeper, Schirach, who discovered that a queen can be 
raised from a worker-egg. (' ' The New Natural and Artificial Multiplication 
of Bees," Bautzen, 1761.) 

t In ten days, if the larva selected is about six days old; in sixteen, if they 
have selected newly-laid eggs. 



48 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 

has acquired some strength, travels over the combs, looking 
for a rival, either hatched or unhatched. 

112. ''Hardly ten minutes had elapsed since the young queen 
had emerged from her cell, when she began to look for sealed 
queen-cells. She rushed furiously upon the first that she met, 
and, by dint of hard work, made a small opening in the end. We 
saw her drawing, with her mandibles, the silk of the cocoon, 
which covered the inside. But, probably, she did not succeed 
according to her wishes, for she left the lower end of the cell, 
and went to work on the upper end, where she finally made a 
wider opening. As soon as this was sufficiently large, she turned 
about, to push her abdomen into it. She made several motions, 
in different directions, till she succeeded in striking her rival 
with the deadly sting. Then she left the cell ; and the bees, 
which had remained, so far, perfectly passive, began to enlarge 
the gap which she had made, and drew out the corpse of a queen 
just out of her nymphal shell. During this time, the victorious 
young queen rushed to another queen-cell, and again made a 
large opening, but she did not introduce her abdomen into it ; 
this second cell containing only a royal-pupa not yet formed. 
There is some probability that, at this stage of development, 
the nymphs of queens inspire less anger to their rivals ; but they 
do not escape their doom ; for, whenever a queen-cell has been 
prematurely opened, the bees throw out its occupant, whether 
worm, nymph, or queen. Therefore, as soon as the victorious 
queen had left this second cell, the workers enlarged the opening 
and drew out the nymph that it contained. The young queen 
rushed to a third cell; but she was unable to open it. She worked 
languidly and seemed tired of her first efforts." — (Huber.) 

113. Huber did not allow this experiment to go on any 
further, as he wished to use the remainder of the queen-cells. 
Had he left these cells untouched, the bees would have fin- 
ished the work of destruction. 

114. We have noticed repeatedly, that the queen-cells 
are always destroyed a few hours after the birth of the 
queen, unless the colony has determined to swarm. In the 
latter case, the workers prevent the newly-hatched queen 
from approaching the queen-cells, till she is old enough and 
strong enough to leave with the swarm. (443.) 



THE QUEEN. 49 

115. Like some human beings who cannot have their own 
way, she is highly offended when thus repulsed, and utters, 
in a quick succession of notes, a shrill, angry sound, not 
unlike the rapid utterance of the words, " peep, peep." If 
held in the closed hand, she will make a similar noise. To 
this angry note, one or more of the unhatched queens, im- 
prisoned and nursed in their cells by the bees, answer by 
the sound " kooa, kooa " ; the difference in their voices, 
being due to the confinement of the latter in the cell. 

These sounds, so entirely unlike the usual steady hum of 
the bees, are almost infallible indications that a swarm will 
soon issue. They are occasionally so loud as to be heard at 
some distance from the hive. 

The reader will understand that all these facts relate to a 
hive of bees, from which the old queen has been previously 
and suddenly removed, either by the Apiarist for some pur- 
pose, or by swarming, or accident. 

116. Sometimes two queens hatch at the same time. We 
translate the narrative of Huber in such an emergency : 

" On the loth of May, 1790, two queens emerged from their cells, 
at about the same time, in one of our observing hives. They 
rushed quickly upon one another, apparently in great anger, and 
grasped one another's antennae, so that the head, corselet and 
abdomen of the one, were touching the head, corselet and ab- 
domen of the other. Had they curved the posterior extremity 
of their bodies, they could have stung each other, and both 
would have perished. But it seems that ISTature has not wished 
that their duels should result in the death of both combatants, 
and that it is prescribed to queens, while in this position, to 
flee instantly with the greatest haste. As soon as both rivals 
understood that they were in danger from one another, they dis- 
entangled themselves and fled apart A few minutes after, 

their fears ceased and they attacked one another again, with the 
same result. The worker bees were much disturbed, all this 
time, and more so while the combatants were separated. Each 
time, the bees stopped the queens in their flight, keeping them 
prisoners for a minute." "At last, in a third attack, the 
stronger, or more savage, of the queens, ran to her unsuspecting 
4 



50 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HOXEY-BEE. 

rival, seized her across the wings, and, climbing upon her, 
pierced her with her sting. The vanquished queen, crawled 
languidly about, and soon after died." — ("Nouvelles Observa- 
tions.") 

117. Although it is generally admitted that two queens 
cannot inhabit the same hive, it happens, sometimes, that 
mother and daughter, are found living peaceably together, 
and even laying eggs at the same time. This is when 
the bees, having noticed the decrease in fecundity of the 
old queen, have raised a young queen to replace her. But 
this abnormal state lasts only a few weeks, or a few months 
at most. 

118. Our junior partner was, one day, hunting for a 
queen with his sister. ' ' What a large and bright-colored 
queen! " exclaimed he, on finding her. " Why, no! she is 
dark and small," said his sister. Both were right, for there 
were two queens, mother and daughter, on the same comb, 
and not six inches apart. At another time we were looking 
for an old queen, whose prolificness had decreased, intend- 
ing to supersede her. To our wonder, the hive was full of 
brood. We found the old queen. Evidently a queen so 
small, so ragged and worn, could not be the mother of such 
a quantity of brood. We continued our search and found 
another queen, daughter of the first, large and plump. Had 
we introduced a strange queen into this hive, after having 
destroyed the old one, thinking that we had made the col- 
ony queenless, she would have been killed. 

119. We could relate a number of such instances. The 
most interesting case was the simultaneous laying of two 
queens of different breeds in the same hive, one black, the 
other Italian. The colony had two queens, when we intro- 
duced our Italian queen. We found the younger one and 
killed her, and the old one was so little considered by her 
bees, that they accepted our imported queen and allowed 
both to remain together. To our astonishment there were 



THE QUEEN. 51 

some black bees hatching among the pure Italians, and it 
was not till we accidentally discovered the old black queen 
that we understood the matter. 

There are more such cases than most bee-keepers would 
imagine, and when these happen to buyers of improved 
races of bees, if they are not very close observers, they are 
apt to accuse the venders of having cheated them. Such 
instances make the business of queen selling quite disagree- 
able. 

120. Impregnation. — The fecundation of the queen bee 
has occupied the minds of Apiarists and savants for ages. 
A number of theories were advanced. If a number of 
drones are confined in a small box, they give forth a strong 
odor : Swammerdam supposed that the queen was impreg- 
nated by this scent (aura semi-nails') of the drones. Reaumur, 
a renowned entomologist, in 1744, thought that the mating 
of the queen was effected inside of the hive. Others ad- 
vanced that the eggs were impregnated b} 7 the drones in the 
cells. 

After making a number of experiments to verify these 
theories, and finding all false, Huber finally ascertained 
that, like many other insects, the queen was fecundated in 
the open air and on the wing ; and that the influence of this 
connection lasts for several years, and probably for life. 

121. Five days or more after her birth, the virgin 
queen goes out to have intercourse with a drone. Several 
bee-keepers of note, such as Neighbour of England ("Cook's 
Manual," 1884, page 72) and Dzierzon of Germany, wrote 
that a queen may go out on her marriage-flight when 
only three days old. The shortest time we have ever 
noticed between the birth of a queen and her first bridal- 
flight was five days, and on this we are in accordance 
with Mr. Alley of Massachusetts, one of the most exten- 
sive queen breeders in the world. The average time is 
six or seven days. Earlier bridal-trips are probably due to 



52 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 

the disturbing of the colony by the Apiarist, for we have no- 
ticed that this disturbing hastens the maturity of the work- 
ers. The bridal-flight takes place about noon, at which 
time, the drones are flying most numerously. 

122. On leaving her hive, the queen flies with her head 
turned towards it, often entering and departing several 
times before she finally soars into the air. Such precautions 
on the part of a young queen are highly necessary, that she 
may not, on her return, lose her life, by attempting, through 
mistake, to enter a strange hive. Many queens are lost in 
this way. 

123. As the mating of the queen and the drone takes 
place in the air, very few persons have witnessed it. The 
following narration will please our readers : 

" A short time ago, during one of those pleasant days of May, I 
was roaming in the fields, not far from Courbevoie. Suddenly I 
heard a loud humming and the wind of a rapid flight brushed my 
cheek. Fearing the attack of a hornet, I made an instinctive mo- 
tion with my hand to drive it away. There were two insects, 
one of which pursued the other with eagerness, coming from high 
in the air. Frightened no doubt, by my movements, they arose 
again, flying vertically to a great height, still in pursuit of each 
other. I imagined that it was a battle, and desiring to know the 
result, I followed, at my best, their motions in the air, and got 
ready to lay hold of them, as soon as they would be within reach. 

" I did not wait long. The pursuing insect rose above the other, 
and suddenly fell on it. The shock was certainly violent, for both 
united, dropped with the swiftness of an arrow and passed by me, 
so near that I struck them down, with my handkerchief. I then 
discovered that this bitter battle was but a love-suit. The two 
insects, stunned and motionless, were coupled. 'Ihe copulation 
had taken place in the air, at the instant when I had seen one of 
them falling on the other, twenty or twent3 r -five feet above the 
ground. 

" It was a queen-bee and a drone. Persuaded that I had killed 
them, I made no scruple of piercing them both with the same pin. 
But the pain recalled them to life again, and they promptly sepa- 
rated. This separation was violent, and resulted in the tearing 
off of the drone's organ (1SS) which remained attached to the 



THE QUEEN. 53 

queen. The queen was yet alive on the following morning. For 
some time after her separation from the drone, she brushed the 
last ring of her abdomen, as though trying to extract the organ 
of the drone. She endeavored to bend herself, probably in order 
to bring this part within reach of her jaws, which were con- 
stantly moving, but the pin prevented her from attaining her aim. 
Her activity soon decreased and she ceased to move."— (Alex. 
Levi, Journal Des Fermes, Paris, 1869.) 

Messrs. Gary and Otis had witnessed a similar occurrence 
in July 1861. {American Bee Journal, Vol. I, page 66.) 

124. It is now well demonstrated that in a single mating, 
a queen is fertilized for life, although in a few rare instan- 
ces they have been said to mate two days in succession, per- 
haps because the first mating was insufficient. 

125. After the queen has re-entered the hive, she gets 
rid of the organ of the drone by drawing it with her claws, 
and she is sometimes helped in this work by the worker- 
bees. The drone dies in the act of fertilization. (188.) 

126. Although fertilization of the queen in confinement 
has been tried by many, it has never been successful. Those 
who, from time to time, claimed to have succeeded were evi- 
dently deceiving themselves through ill-made experiments. 
(187.) 

127. Having ascertained that the queen-bee is fecund- 
ated in the open air and on the wing, Huber still could not 
form any satisfactory conjecture how eggs were fertilized 
which were not yet developed in her ovaries. Years ago, 
the celebrated Dr. John Hunter (1792), and others, sup- 
posed that there must be a permanent receptacle for the 
male sperm, opening into the oviduct. Dzierzon, who must 
be regarded as one of the ablest contributors of modern 
times to Apiarian science, maintained this opinion, and 
stated that he had found such a receptacle filled with a fluid 
resembling the semen of the drones. He does not seem to 
have then demonstrated his discoveries by any microscopic 
examinations. 



54 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 

128. In the Winter of 1851-2, the writer submitted for 
scientific examination several queen-bees to Dr. Joseph 
Leidy, of Philadelphia, who had the highest reputation both 
at home and abroad, as a naturalist and microscopic anat- 
omist. He found, in making his dissections, a small globu- 
lar sac, about -Jg of an inch in diameter, communicating 
with the oviduct, and filled with a whitish fluid ; this fluid, 
when examined under the microscope, abounded in the 
spermatozoids* which characterize the seminal fluid. A 
comparison of this substance, later in the season, with the 
semen of a drone, proved them to be exactly alike, f 

129. These examinations have settled, on the impreg- 
nable basis of demonstration, the mode in which the eggs of 
the queen are fecundated. In descending the oviduct to 
be deposited in the cells, they pass by the mouth of this 
seminal sac, or " spermatheca," and receive a portion of its 
fertilizing contents. Small as it is, it contains sufficient to 
impregnate millions of eggs. In precisely the same way, 
the mother-wasps and hornets are fecundated. The females 
only of these insects survive the Winter, and often a single 
one begins the construction of a nest, in which at first only 
a few eggs are deposited. How could these eggs hatch, if 
the females had not been impregnated the previous season? 
Dissection proves that the}^ have a spermatheca similar to 
that of the queen-bee. It never seems to have occurred to 
the opponents of Huber, that the existence of a permanent- 
ly-impregnated mother-wasp is quite as difficult to be ac- 
counted for, as the existence of a similarly impregnated 
queen-bee. 

130. The celebrated Swammerdam, in his observations 

* Spermatozoids are the living germs of the seminal fluid. 

t Prof. Siebold, in 1S43, examined the spermatheca of the queen-bee, andfouud 
it after copulation , filled with the seminal fluid of the drone . At that time , Api- 
arists paid no attention to his views, hut considered them, as he says, to he 
only ' ' theoretical staff." It seems, then, that Prof. Leidy's dissection was 
not, as we had hitherto supposed, the first, of an impregnated spermatheca. 



THE QUEEN. 55 

upon insects, made in the latter part of the seventeenth 
century, has given a highly magnified drawing of the ovaries 
of the queen-bee, a reduced copy of which we present 
(Plate V) to our readers. The small globular sac (D), com- 
municating with the oviduct (E), which he thought secreted 
a fluid for sticking the eggs to the base of the cells, is the 
seminal reservoir, or spermatheca. Any one who will care- 
fully dissect a queen-bee, may see this sac, even with the 
naked eye. 

It will be seen that the ovaries (67 and II) are double, each 
consisting of an amazing number of ducts filled with eggs, 
which gradually increase in size.* 

131. Huber, while experimenting to ascertain how the 
queen was fecundated, confined some young ones to their 
hives by contracting the entrances, so that they were more 
than three weeks old before they could go in search of the 
drones. To his amazement, the queens whose impregnation 
was thus retarded never laid any eggs but such as produced 
drones ! 

He tried this experiment repeatedly, but always with the 
same result. Bee-keepers, even from the time of Aristotle, 
had observed that all the brood in a hive were occasionally 
drones. 

132. Dzierzon appears to have been the first to ascertain 
the truth on this subject ; and his discovery must certainly 
be ranked among the most astonishing facts in all the range 
of animated nature. 

Dzierzon asserted that all impregnated eggs produce fe- 
males, either workers or queens; and all unimpregnated ones, 

* Since the first edition of this work was issued, we have ascertained that Po- 
sel (page 54) describes the oviduct of the queen, the spermatheca and its con- 
tents, and the use of the latter in impregnating the passing egg. His work was 
published at Munich, in 1784. It seems also from his work ("A Complete 
Treatise of Forest and Horticultural Bee-Culture," page 36), that before the 
investigations of Huber, Jansha, the hee-keeper royal of Maria Theresa, had 
discovered the fact that the young queens leave their hive in search of the drones . 



56 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 

males, or drones! He stated that in several of his hives he 
found drone-laying queens, whose wings were so imperfect 
that they could not fry, and which, on examination, proved 
to be unfecundated. Hence, he concluded that the eggs 
laid by an unimpregnated queen-bee, had sufficient vital- 
ity to produce drones. 

133. Parthenogenesis, meaning "generation of a virgin," 
is the name given to this faculty of a female, to produce 
offspring without having been fecundated, and is not at all 
rare among insects. 

134. In the Autumn of 1852, our assistant found a young 
queen whose progen}~ consisted entirety of drones. The 
colony had been formed by removing a few combs contain- 
ing bees, brood, and eggs, from another hive, and had 
raised a new queen. Some eggs were found in one of the 
combs, and young bees were already emerging from the 
cells, all of which were drones. As there were none but 
worker-cells in the hive, they were reared in them, and not 
having space for full development, the}' were dwarfed in 
size, although the bees had pieced the cells to give more 
room to their occupants. 

We were not only surprised to find drones reared in 
worker-cells, but equally so that a young queen, who at 
first lays only the eggs of workers, should be laying 
drone-eggs, and at once conjectured that this was a case of 
an unimpregnated drone-laying queen, sufficient time not 
having elapsed for her impregnation to be unnaturally re- 
tarded. All necessary precautions were taken to determine 
this point. The queen was removed from the hive, and 
although her wings appeared to be perfect, she could not 
fly. It seemed probable, therefore, that she had never been 
able to leave the hive for impregnation. 

135. To settle the question be}T>nd the possibility of 
doubt, we submitted this queen to Professor Leidy for mi- 
croscopic examination. The following is an extract from 



(Plate 5.) 




THE OVARIES OF THE QUEEN, IX COMBINATION WITH THE STING. 
(Magnified.) 
.ffand G, ovaries uniting in a common oviduct E; D, spermatheca; A, poison- 
sack, R, rectum; C, muscles. 



THE QUEEN. 57 

his report: " The ovaries were filled with eggs, the poison- 
sac full of fluid ; and the spermatheea distended with a per- 
fectly colorless, transparent, viscid liquid, without a trace of 
spermatozoids."' 

136. On examining this same colony a few days later, 
we found satisfactory evidence that these drone-eggs were 
laid by the queen which had been removed. No fresh eggs 
had been deposited in the cells, and the bees on missing her 
had begun to build royal cells, to rear, if possible, another 
queen. Two of the royal cells were in a short time discon- 
tinued ; while a third was sealed over in the usual way, to 
undergo its changes to a perfect queen. As the bees had 
only a drone-laying queen, whence came the female egg 
from which they were rearing a queen ? 

At first we imagined that they might have stolen it from 
another hive ; but on opening this cell it contained only a 
dead drone ! Huber had described a similar mistake made 
by some of his bees. At the base of this cell was an unus- 
ual quantity of the peculiar jelly fed to develop young 
queens. One might almost imagine that the bees had dosed 
the unfortunate drone to death ; as though they had hoped 
by such liberal feeding to produce a change in his sexual 
organization. 

137. In the Summer of 1854, we found another drone- 
laying queen in our Apiary, with wings so shrivelled that 
she could not fly. We gave her successively to several queen- 
less colonies, in all of which she deposited only drone-eggs. 

138. In Italy there is a variety of the honey-bee differing 
in size and color from the common kind. If a queen of this 
variety is crossed with the common drones, her drone-prog- 
eny will be Italian (551), and her worker-brood a cross 
between the two ; thus showing that the kind of drones she 
will produce has no dependence on the male by which she 
is fecundated. 



58 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 

" The following interesting experiment was made by Berlepsch, 
in order to confirm the drone-productiveness of a virgin queen. 
He contrived the exclusion of queens at the end of September, 
1S54, and, therefore, at a time when there was no longer any males ; 
he was lucky enough to keep one of them through the Winter, and 
this pro uced drone-offspring on the 2d of March, in the following 
year, furnishing fifteen hundred cells with brood. That this 
drone-bearing queen remained a virgin, was proved by the dissec- 
tion which Leuckart undertook, at the request of Berlepsch. He 
found the state and contents of the seminal pouch of this queen to 
be exactly of the same nature as those found in virgin queens. 
The seminal receptacle in such females never contains semen- 
masses, with their characteristic spermatozoids, but only a limpid 
fluid, destitute of cells and granules which is produced from the 
two appendicular glands of the seminal capsule; and, as I sup- 
pose, serves the purpose of keeping the semen transferred into the 
seminal capsule in a fresh state, and the spermatozoids active, 
and, consequently, capable of impregnation."— (Siebold, "Parthe- 
nogenesis.") 

139. Again, to prove that Dzierzon was right, Professor 
Von Siebold, in 1855, dissected several eggs at the Apiary 
of Baron Von Berlepsch, and he found spermatozoids in 
every female egg, or egg laid in worker-cell, but although 
he examined thirty- two male eggs, or eggs laid in drone- 
cells, he could not discover a single spermatozoid either in 
or around them. In the act of copulation, the sperm of the 
drone is received into the spermatheca (Plate V, D), which 
is placed near and can empty itself into the oviduct. When 
an egg passes by the spermatheca, if the circumstances are 
such that a few spermatozoids empty out of the bag on the 
egg, the sex of it is changed from male to female. 

It appears that there is in each egg a small opening 
(micropyle, i and j, fig. 24), through which the living sperm- 
atozoids enter, when the circumstances are such that a few 
of them can slip out the seminal bag and slide into the 
oviduct. Such is the process of impregnation. 

140. Aristotle noticed, more than 2,000 years ago, that 



THE QUEEN. 59 

the eggs which produce drones are like the worker- eggs.* 
With the aid of powerful microscopes we are still unable to 
detect an}- difference in the size or outside appearance of 
the eggs of the queen. 

141. These facts, taken in connection, constitute a per- 
fect demonstration that unfecundated queens are not only 
able to lay eggs, but that their eggs have sufficient vitality 
to produce drones. 

It seems to us probable, that after fecundation has been 
delayed for about three weeks, the organs of the queen-bee 
are in such a condition that it can no longer be effected ; 
just as the parts of a flower, after a certain time, wither 
and shut up, and the plant becomes incapable of fructifica- 
tion. Perhaps, after a certain time, the queen loses all de- 
sire to go in search of the male. 

There is something analogous to these wonders in the 
" aphides " or green lice, which infest plants. We have un- 
doubted evidence that a fecundated female gives birth to 
other females, and they in turn to others, all of which with- 
out impregnation are able to bring forth young ; until, after 
a number of generations, perfect males and females are pro- 
duced, and the series starts anew ! 

However improbable it may appear that an unimpregnated 
egg can give birth to a living being, or that sex can depend 
on impregnation, we are not at liberty to reject facts be- 
cause we cannot comprehend the reasons of them. He who 
allows himself to be guilty of such folly, if he aims to be con- 
sistent, must eventually be plunged into the dreary gulf of 
atheism. Common sense, philosophy, and religion alike 
teach us to receive, with becoming reverence, all undoubted 
facts, whether in the natural or spiritual world ; assured 



* Cheshire says that " worker- egg ' ' is a misnomer, since all worker-eggs 
are impregnated, and heuce female-eggs. But the term is too intelligihle and 
popular, for us to change it; since Cheshire himself hows before custom, and 
uses it. 



60 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 

that however mysterious they may appear to us, they are 
beautifully consistent in the sight of Him whose " under- 
standing is infinite." 

142. It had long been known that the queen deposits 
drone-eggs in the large or drone-cells, and worker-eggs in 
the small or worker-cells, and that she usually makes no 
mistakes. Dzierzon inferred, therefore, that there was some 
way in which she was able to decide the sex of the egg be- 
fore it was laid, and that she must have such a control over 
the mouth of the seminal sac as to be able to extrude her 
eggs, allowing them at will to receive or not a portion of its 
fertilizing contents. In this way he thought she determined 
their sex, according to the size of the cells in which she 
laid them. 

143. Our lamented friend, Mr. Samuel Wagner, had ad- 
vanced a highly ingenious theory, which accounted for all 
the facts, without admitting that the queen had any special 
knowledge or will on the subject. He supposed that, when 
she deposited her eggs in the worker-cells, her body was 
slightly compressed by their size, thus causing the eggs as 
they passed the spermatheca to receive its vivifying in- 
fluence. 

144. But this theory was overthrown by the fact that 
the queen sometimes lays eggs in cells that are built onl} T to 
a third of their length, whether worker-cells or drone-cells, 
and in which no compression can take place. Yet, it is 
very difficult to admit that the queen is endowed with a 
faculty that no other animal possesses, that of knowing and 
deciding the sex of her progeny beforehand. It seems to 
us that she must be guided by her instinct like all other 
beings, for she alwa} T s begins, in the Spring, by laying in 
small cells, using large cells only when no others are in reach 
in the warm part of the hive. Sometimes, however, when 
she is very heavy with eggs, she lays in drtme-cells as she 
comes to them. Usually it is only when the hive is warm 



THE QUEEN. 61 

throughout, and worker-cells all occupied, that she fills the 
unoccupied drone-cells. This has given rise to the popular 
theory that the bees raise drones whenever they intend to 
swarm. It is possible that the width of the cells and the 
position of her legs when laying in drone-cells (224) pre- 
vents the action of the muscles of her spermatheca. 

145. The preference of the queen for worker-cells can 
not be disputed. If all the drone-combs are removed from 
a hive and replaced with worker-combs, she will not show 
any displeasure. She will live in that hive for years, with- 
out laying any drone-eggs, except, perhaps, here and there, 
in odd-shaped junction-cells. Mr. A. I. Root, of Medina, 
O., makes the same remark: 

" By having a hive furnished entirely with worker-comb, we 
can so nearly prevent the production of drones, that it is safe 
enough to call it a complete remedy." — { U A. B. C. of Bee Cult- 
ure," page 134, Medina, 1883.) 

146. If, on the other hand, we furnish a swarm with 
nothing but drone-comb, already built, they would soon 
leave the hive. But, if a few worker-cells are among the 
drone-cells, the queen will find them and will lay in them. 
On this question Mr. Root says : 

147. " Bees sometimes rear worker-brood in drone-comb 
when compelled to from want of room, and they always do it by 
contracting the mouth of the cells, and leaving the young bee a 
rather large berth in which to grow and develop." ("A. B. C." 
page 133.) " If you give a young laying queen a hive supplied 
only with drone-combs, she will rear worker-brood in these 
drone-cells. The mouth of the cells will be contracted with 
wax as mentioned before." (Page 188.) 

148. An experiment, made in Bordeaux, under the su- 
pervision of Mr. Drory, editor of the ^Rucher" has proven 
that the queen may lay worker-eggs in drone-cells. A piece 
of drone-comb containing worker-brood, was sent us by 
him. The eggs were laid irregularly and the mouth of the 



62 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HOXEY-BEE. 



cells had been contracted, as mentioned by Mr. Root. This 
contraction of the cell mouth seems indispensable to enable 
the queen to put in motion the muscles of her speimatheca. 
149. We will add. with Mr. Root, that in the Spring, or 
late in the Fall, when the crop is not abundant, the queen 
will travel over drone-combs without depositing a single egg 
in them. Even by feeding the colony, when in these con- 
ditions, the queen cannot be readily induced to la}' in 
drone-cells. Our conclusions on this point differ from those 
of Mr. Root. We think that the queen prefers worker- 
cells to drone-cells, because the fecundation of the eggs by 
the action of the muscles of the spermatheca probably gives 
her a pleasant sensation, which she does not experience in 
la}ing drone-eggs. 




*>G ~Gb 

Fig. 22. 
ABDOMEX OF THE QUEEX-BEE. 
(Magnified. From the "Hlustrierte B'enei-zeitung.") 

a, b, r, d, e, rings of the ahdomen; V. nerve-chain; 31, honey-sack; 



ovaries; D, stomach; R, rectum; G, ganglions; A 
St, sting; P, muscles; H, gland: S, poison-sack. 



anus; &*, ovipositor; 



150. Some very prolific queens occasionally lay drone- 
eggs in worker-cells. It may be due to fatigue. This will 
readily be admitted when we consider the number of eggs 
laid in one day. (98.) 

151. Dzierzon found that a queen which had been refrig- 
erated for a long time, after being brought to life by warmth, 



THE QUEEN. 63 

laid only male eggs, whilst previously she had also laid fe- 
male eggs. Berlepsch refrigerated three queens by placing 
them thirty-six hours in an ice-house, two of which never 
revived, and the third laid, as before, thousands of eggs, 
but from all of them only males were evolved. In two in- 
stances, Mr. Mahan has, at our suggestion, tried similar ex- 
periments, and with like results. A short exposure of a 
queen, to pounded ice and salt, answers every purpose. 
The spermatozoids are in some way rendered inoperative by 
severe cold. 

152. The queen begins laying about two days after im- 
pregnation. She is seldom treated with much attention by 
the bees until after she has begun to replenish the cells with 
eggs ; although if previously deprived of her, they show, 
by their despair, that they fully appreciated her importance 
to their welfare. 

The extraordinary fertility of the queen-bee has already 
been noticed. The process of laying has been well described 
by the Rev. W. Dunbar, a Scotch Apiarist : 

153. " When the queen is about to lay, she puts her head into 
a cell, and remains in that position for a second or two, to ascer- 
tain its fitness for the deposit she is about to make. She then 
withdraws her head, and curving her body downwards, inserts 
the lower part of it into the cell; in a few seconds she turns half 
round upon herself and withdraws, leaving an egg behind her." 

In the Winter, or early Spring, she lays first in the mid- 
dle of the cluster, and continues in a circle, around the first 
eggs laid, till she has filled the whole warm space. She 
then crosses over to the next comb and does the same thing ; 
as the bees always cluster on different combs in groups ex- 
actly opposite, to produce the utmost possible concentration 
and economy of heat for developing the various changes of 
the brood. 

154. Queens lay more or less according to, 1st, The sea- 
son ; 2nd, The number of bees that keep up the heat of the 



64 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HOXEY-BEE. 

brood-nest, and 3d. The quantity of food which they eat. 
When bees harvest honey or pollen, or when these necessa- 
ries are provided artificially by the Apiarist, they feed the 
queen as they pass by her, oftener than they would other- 
wise ; hence her laying increases in Spring, and decreases in 
Summer or Fall. It is certain that when the weather is un- 
congenial, or the colony too feeble to maintain sufficient heat, 
fewer eggs are matured, just as unfavorable circumstances 
diminish the number of eggs laid by the hen ; and when the 
weather is very cold, the queen stops laying, in weak colo- 
nies. 

In the latitude of Northern Massachusetts, we have found 
that the queen ordinarily ceases to lay some time in Octo- 
ber ; and begins again, in strong stocks, in the latter part of 
December. On the 14th of January, 1857 (the previous 
month having been very cold, the thermometer sometimes 
sinking to 17° below zero), we examined three hives, and 
found that the central combs in two contained eggs and un- 
sealed brood ; there were a few cells with sealed brood in 
the third. Strong stocks, even in the coldest climates, usu- 
ally contain some brood ten months in the year. 

155. " Queens differ much as to the degree of their fertility. 
Those are best which deposit their eggi with uniform regularity, 
leaving no cells unsupplied— as the brood hatches at the same time 
on the same range of comb, which can be again supplied ; the 
queen thus losing no time in searching for empty cells." — (Dzier- 
zon.) 

In bee-life, as well as in human affairs, those who are 
systematic, ordinarily accomplish the most. 

To test the difference of fecundity between queens. Mr. 
De Laj^ens, while transferring bees (574:), in middle April, 
counted the eggs dropped on a black cloth (57 7). in forty 
minutes, by the queens of four different colonies. The 
poorest queen dropped but one egg. the second twelve, the 
third eighteen, and the fourth twenty. On the fifteenth of 



Plate 6. 




DZ1ERZON, 
Discoverer of Pathogenesis in Queen-bees. 



This writer is mentioned pages 51, 53, 55, 56, 58, 60, 62, 64, 66, 
120, 122, 137, 138, 142, 240, 284, 286, 287, 345, 346, 
350, 359, 378, 514. 



THE QUEEN. 65 

July the colony of the first queen was very poor, the second 
was of average strength, and both the others were very 
strong. 

156. It is amusing to see how the supernumerary eggs 
of the queen are disposed of. If the workers are too few to 
take charge of all her eggs, or there is a deficiency of bee- 
bread to nourish the young; or if, for any reason, she does 
not judge best to deposit them in the cells, she stands upon 
a comb, and simply extrudes them from her oviduct, the 
workers devouring them as fast as they are laid. 

One who carefully watches the habits of bees will often 
feel inclined to speak of his little favorites as having an 
intelligence almost if not quite akin to reason ; and we have 
sometimes queried, whether the workers who are so fond of 
a tit-bit in the shape of a newly-laid egg, ever experienced 
a struggle between appetite and duty ; so that they must 
practice self-denial to refrain from breakfasting on the eggs 
so temptingly deposited in the cells. 

157. It is well known to breeders of poultry, that the 
fertility of a hen decreases with age, until at length she 
may become entirely barren. By the same law, the fecun- 
dity of the queen-bee ordinarily diminishes after she has 
entered her third year. An old queen sometimes ceases to 
lay worker-eggs ; the contents of her spermatheca becoming 
exhausted, the eggs are no longer impregnated, and pro- 
duce only drones. 

The queen-bee usually dies of old age in her fourth year, 
although she has been known to live much longer. There is 
great advantage, therefore, in hives which allow her, when 
she has passed the period of her greatest fertility, to be 
easily removed. 
5 




66 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 



The Worker-Bee. 

158. The workers are the smallest inhabitants of a bee- 
hive, and compose the bulk of the pop- 
ulation. A good swarm ought to contain 
at least 20,000 ; and in large hives, strong 
colonies which are not reduced by swarm- 
ing, frequently number four or five times 
as many during the height of the breeding 

Fig. 23. 

season. 

159. Their functions are varied. The young bees work 
inside of the hive, prepare and distribute the food to the 
larvae, take care of the queen, by brushing her with their 
tongue, nurse her, maintain the heat of the hive, or renew 
the air and evaporate the newly-gathered honey (249), by 
ventilating (744). They clean the hive of dirt or debris, 
close up all the cracks, and secrete the greater part of the 
wax which is produced in the hive. 

The old bees may, if necessary, do a part of the same 
work; but, as we have seen, (39), old age renders many 
unfit to prepare the food of the larvae. More alert than 
the young bees, they do the outside work, gather honey 
(246), pollen (263), and water (271), for the use of 
the family, and propolis (236) to cement the cracks.* 

160. " Dzierzon states it as a fact, that worker-bees attend 
more exclusively to the domestic concerns of the colony in the 
early period of life ; assuming the discharge of the more active 

*Huber speaks of two kinds of workers : "One of these is, in general, destined 
for the elaboration of wax, and its size is considerably enlarged when full of 
honey ; the other immediately imparts what it has collected, to its companions; 
its abdomen undergoes no sensible change, or it retains only the honey neces- 
sary for its own subsistence. The particular function of the bees of this kind 
is to take care of the young, for they are not charged with provisioning the hive. 
In opposition to the wax-workers, we shall call them small bees, or nurses." 

"Although the external difference be inconsiderable, this is uot an imagin- 
ary distinction. Anatomical observations prove that the stomach is not the 



THE WORKER-BEE. 67 

out-door duties only during the later periods of their existence. 
The Italian bees (5 51) furnished me with suitable means to test 
the correctness of this opinion. 

"On the 18th of April, -1855, I introduced (533) an Italian 
queen into a colony of common bees ; and on the 10th of May 
following, the first Italian workers emerged from the cells. On 
the ensuing day, they emerged in great numbers, as the colony 
had been kept in good condition by regular and plentiful feeding. 
I will arrange my observations under the following heads : 

161. "1. On the 10th of May, the first Italian workers 
emerged ; and on the 17th they made their first appearance out- 
side of the hive. On the next day, and then daily till the 29th, 
they came forth about noon, disporting in front of the hive, in 
the rays of the sun. They, however, manifestly, did not issue 
for the purpose of gathering honey or pollen, for during that 
time none were noticed returning with pellets ; none were seen 
alighting on any of the flowers in my garden; and I found no 
honey in the stomachs of such as I caught and killed for examin- 
ation. The gathering was done exclusively by the old bees of 
the original stock, until the 29th of May, when the Italian bees 
began to labor in that vocation also — being then 19 days old. 

162. "#. On the feeding troughs placed in my garden, and 
which were constantly crowded with common bees, I saw no 
Italian bees till the 27th of May, seventeen days after the first 
had emerged from the cells. 

" From the 10th of May on, I daily presented to Italian bees, 
in the hive, a stick dipped in honey. The younger ones never 
attempted to lick any of it ; the older occasionally seemed to sip 
a little, but immediately left it and moved away. The common 
bees always eagerly licked it up, never leaving it till they had 
filled their honey-bags. Not till the 25th of May did I see any 
Italian bee lick up honey eagerly, as the common bees did from 
the beginning. 

" These repeated observations force me to conclude that, during 

same : experiments have ascertained that one of the species cannot fulfill all 
the functions shared among the workers of a hire. We painted those of each 
class with different colors, in order to studytheir proceedings; and these were 
not interchanged. In another experiment, after supplying a hive, deprived of 
a queen, with brood and pollen, we saw the small bees quickly occupied in nu- 
trition of the larvse, while those of the wax- working class neglected them. 
Small bees also produce wax, but in a very inferior quantity to what is elab- 
orated by the real wax-workers." The two kinds spoken of by Huber were 
bees at different stages of life. 



68 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 

the first two weeks of the worker-bee's life, the impulse for gath- 
ering honey and pollen does not exist, or at least is not devel- 
oped ; and that the development of this impulse proceeds slowly 
and gradually. At first the young bee will not even touch the 
honey presented to her ; some days later she will simply taste it, 
and only after a further lapse of time will she consume it 
eagerly. Two weeks elapse before she readily eats honey, and 
nearly three weeks pass, before the gathering impulse is suffi- 
ciently developed to impel her to fly abroad, and seek for honey 
and pollen among the flowers. 

163. " I made, further, the following observations respecting 
the domestic employments of the young Italian bees : 

" 1. On the 20th of May. I took out of the hive all the combs it 
contained, and replaced them after examination. On inspecting 
them half an hour later, I was surprised to see that the edges of 
the combs, which had been cut on removal,* were covered by 
Italian bees exclusively. On closer examination, I found that 
they were busily engaged in re-attaching the combs to the sides 
of the hive. When I brushed them away, they instantly returned, 
in eager haste, to resume their labors. 

"2. After making the foregoing observations, I inserted in the 
hive a bar from which a comb had been cut, to ascertain whether 
the rebuilding of comb would be undertaken by the Italian bees. 
I took it out a few hours subsequently, and found it covered al- 
most exclusively by Italian workers, though the colony, at that 
time, still contained a large majority of common bees. I saw 
that they were sedulously engaged in building comb ; and they 
prosecuted the work unremittingly, whilst I held the bar in my 
hand. I repeated this experiment several days in succession, 
and satisfied myself that the bees engaged in this work were al- 
ways almost exclusively of the Italian race. Many of them had 
scales of wax visibly protruding between their abdominal rings 
(201). These observations show that, in the early stage of their 
existence, the impulse for comb-building is stronger than later 
in life. 

164. u 3. Whenever I examined the colony during the first 
three weeks after the Italian bees emerged, I found the brood- 
combs covered principally by bees of that race : and it is, hence, 
probable that the brood is chiefly attended to and nursed by the 

* Mr. Donhoff,the writer of this quotation, used theDzierzon hive, the combs 
of which are suspended in the hive by an upper bar only, and cannot be taken 
out unless their edges, that are built against the sides of the hive, are cut. 



THE WORKER-BEE. 69 

younger bees. The evidence, however, is not so conclusive as 
in the case of comb-building, inasmuch as they may have con- 
gregated on the brood-combs because these are warmer than the 
others. 

" I may add another interesting observation. The fseces in the 
intestines of the young Italian bees was viscid and yellow ; that 
of the common or old bees was thin and limpid, like that of the 
queen-bee. This is confirmatory of the opinion, that, for the 
production of wax and jelly, the bees require pollen ; but do 
not need any for their own sustenance." — (B. Z., 1855, p. 163. 
Dr. Donhoff, translated by the late S. Wagner.) 

165. There are none but gentlemen of leisure in the com- 
monwealth of bees, but assuredly there are no such ladies, 

I whether of high or low degree. The queen 
herself has her full share of duties, the 
royal office being no sinecure, when the 
mother who fills it must daily superintend 
the proper deposition of thousands of 
eggs. 

Fi s- 24. " The eggs of bees are of a lengthened, oval 

the egg in the shape with a slight curvature, and of a bluish 

CELL 

^ ' white color : being besmeared, at the time of 

laying, with a glutinous substance, they ad- 
here to the bases of the cells, and remain unchanged in figure or 
situation for three or four days ; they are then hatched, the bot- 
tom of each cell presenting to view a small white worm." — 
(Bevan.) 

166. For the first three days after their hatching, these 
worms are fed with a jelly, thought to be prepared or secre- 
ted by the upper pair of glands of the worker-bees (39), 
which are very large in the nurses. This milky food is a 
whitish, transparent fluid, and is distributed to the larvae, 
as it is needed. After four or perhaps five days, the larva 
is too large for the bottom of the cell, where it was coiled 
up, to use the language of Swammerdam, like a dog when 
going to sleep ; and stretches itself till it occupies the whole 



70 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 



length of the cell, lying on its back. Its food at this time, 
is different from that first given. 

6 <E &> 








ft 



^^ 



BBOOD IN ALL STAGES. 

(From Girard.) 
a, b, magnified larvae; c, the same, natural size; d, e, magnified nymph; 
f, natural size; <7, eggs, natural size; h, magnified; i, egg, showing micro- 
pyle, magnified; j, micropyle, magnified. 

"The mixture of honey and pollen given at the end of the 
nursing, is easily detected by its color, which is yellower, on ac- 
count of the pollen, and 
can be seen through the 
skin of the larva." — (Du- 
bini.) 

167. "The larva, or 
grub, grows apace, but 
not without experiencing 
a difficulty to which the 
human family is, in some Flg - 2ti - 

sort, subject in the period C0ILED m THE CELT " 

Of youth. Its coat is in- (Magnified. From Sartori and Eanschenfels.) 

elastic and does not grow with the wearer, so that it soon, 
fitting badly, has to be thrown off; but, happily in the case 
of the larva, a new and larger one has already been formed 




THE WORKER-BEE. 



71 



beneath it, and the discarded garment, more delicate than 
gossamer, is pushed to the bottom of the cell." — (Cheshire.) 



168. "The nursing- 
bees now seal over the 
cell with a light brown 
cover, externally more 
or less convex (the cap 
of a drone-cell being 
more convex than that 
of a worker), and thus 
differing from that of a 
honey-cell, which is 




Fig. 27. 

STRETCHED IN THE CELL. 

(Magnified.) 

paler and somewhat concave." — (" Bevan on the Honey-Bee.") 



The cap of the brood-cell is made not of pure wax, but 
of a mixture of bee-bread and wax ; and appears under the 
microscope to be full of fine holes, to give air to the in- 
closed insect. From its texture and shape it is easily thrust 
off by the bee when mature, whereas if it consisted wholly 
of wax, the insect would either perish for lack of air, or be 
unable to force its way into the world. Both the material 
and shape of the lids which close the honey-cells are differ- 
ent: they are of pure wax, and are slightly concave, the 

better to resist the pres- 
sure of their contents. 
The bees sometimes 
neglect to cap the cells 
of some of the brood, 
and some persons have 
thought that this brood 
was diseased, but it 
hatches all the same. 
The larva is no sooner 
perfectly inclosed, than it begins to spin a cocoon after the 
manner of the silk-worm, and Cheshire teaches us that it 
does not encase the insect, but is only at the mouth of the 
cell, " and in no case extends far down the sides." 




Fig. 28. 
THE TRANSFORMATION IN THE SEALED 
CELL. 
(Magnified.) 



72 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 

To return to Bevan : 

169. " When it has undergone this change, it has usually borne 
the name of nymph, or pupa. It has now attained its full growth, 
and the large amount of nutriment which it has taken serves as 
a store for developing the perfect insect. 

" The working-bee nymph spins its cocoon in thirty-six hours. 
After passing about three days in this state of preparation for a 
new existence, it gradually undergoes so great a change as not 
to wear a vestige of its previous form." 




Fig, 29. 

SPINNING OF THE COCOON AND TRANSFORMATION INTO NYMPH. 

(Magnified. From Sartori and Rauschenfels.) 

170. The last cast-off skin of the larva, " which, by the 
creature's movements within the cell, becomes plastered to 
the walls and joins the cocoon near the mouth end " (Chesh- 
ire), is left behind, and forms a closely-attached and exact 
lining to the cell ; by this means the breeding-cells become 
smaller, and their partitions stronger, the oftener they 
change their tenants. 

So thin is this lining, that brood combs more than twenty 
years old have been found to raise bees as large apparently 
as any other in the Apiary. 

171. About twenty-one days are usually required for the 
transformations from the worker-egg to the perfect insect. 
But the time may be shortened or lengthened by the tem- 
perature, or the conditions of the colony. Dzierzon and 
others wrote that a worker-bee can hatch in nineteen to 
twenty- one days. Collin says nineteen to twenty- three. 
That the brood can remain even longer before hatching, is 



THE WORKER-BEE. 73 

confirmed by the report of A. Saunier, in the South of 
France. Having deprived a hive of all its inhabitants, he 
found bees, hatching twenty- three days afterwards, that had 
not even been sealed in their cells, since there had been no 
nurses there to do this work. (" L'Apiculteur." Paris, 
1870.) As these were already full-grown larvae, when the 
hive was deprived of its bees, they must have been twenty- 
seven days old when hatching. In this experiment, the 
heat produced by the larva?, coupled with that of the atmos- 
phere, had been sufficient to keep them alive and help their 
slow development. 

We have often noticed the brood of swarms, that had de- 
serted their hives, still alive after a cold night, but in each 
case its development was delayed. 

172. A newly hatched worker, like a newly hatched 
queen, is easily recognized by her small size, her pale gray 
color, and her weak appearance. After a few days, she has 
grown considerably larger. She is then in the bloom of 
health ; her color is bright, she has not yet lost a single hair 
of the down which covers her body. These hairs fall grad- 
ually from age and work, and sometimes disappear almost 
entirely. 

173. The first excursion of the young bee out of the hive 
takes place when she is about eight days old. (See Don- 
hoff's experiment 160.) The disturbing of the colony, or 
the lack of old bees may cause them to go out earlier. 

The first flight of young worker-bees is easily remembered 
when once seen. It usually takes place in the afternoon of 
a sunny day. Ihey first walk about on the platform in a 
hesitating manner and then take flight. Their humming, 
and joyous and peaceable circles to reconnoitre the location 
of their home, recalls to memoTy the gay playing of children 
in front of the school-house door. Their second trip is 
made about a week after the first ; it is then that they bring 
in their first load. A young bee coming home is readily 



74 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 

recognized by the small size of the pellets of pollen she 
carries, when compared with those of older bees, and by 
the turns she makes before alighting, 

174. The Apiarist should become acquainted with the 
behavior of young bees, so as not to mistake their pleasant 
flight for the disorderly and restless motions of robber-bees. 
(664.) 

175. Although the workers are of the same sex as the 
queens (4), their sexual organs are undeveloped, owing to 
the coarser food which they receive during the latter part of 
their growth in the cell (108). Yet they have rudimental 
ovaries, containing a few undeveloped eggs (fig. 30). They 
are incapable of fecundation. 

176. Occasionally, some of them appear to be sufficient- 
ly developed to be capable of laying eggs ; but these eggs, 
like those of queens whose impregnation has been retarded, 
always produce drones. Drone-laying, by worker-bees, 
only takes place when a colony which has lost its queen 
despairs of obtaining another, and seems to be caused by 
their eagerness to raise brood. Huber thought that fertile 
workers were reared in the neighborhood of the young 
queens, and that they received some particles of the pecu- 
liar food or jelly on which these queens are fed.* But 
microscopic examinations seem to prove that a large num- 
ber of the workers, raised during a good honey harvest, 
are capable of laying eggs. The number of drone-laying 

*Au extraot from Huber's preface will be interesting in this connection. After 
speaking of bis blindness, and praising the extraordinary taste for Natural His- 
tory, of his assistant, Burnens, "who was born with the talents of an obser- 
ver, "he says: " Every one of the facts.I now publish, we have seen, over 
and over again, during the period of eight years, which we have employed in 
making our observations on bees. It is impossible to form a just idea of the 
patience and skill with which Burnens has carried out the experiments which 
I am about to describe; he has often watched some of the working-bees of our 
hives, which we had reason to think fertile, for the space of twenty-four hours, 
without distraction * * * * and he counted fatigue and pain as nothing, com- 
pared with the great desire he felt to know the results. ' ' 



THE WORKER-BEE. 



75 



workers is sometimes very large in a hopelessly queenless 
hive ; we have seen at least a dozen laying on the same 
comb. Mr. Viallon, a noted bee-keeper of Louisiana, once 
had so many in one queenless colony, that he was able to 
send several dozen for dissection to bee-keepers in this 
country and Europe. 





(Fig 



COMPARATIVE SIZES OP THE OVARIES OF QUEEN AND WORKER. 

(All magnified. From Girard.) 
A, queen ovaries; B, laying-worker ovaries; C, sterile-worker ovaries. 

177. Some persons may question the wisdom of Nature 
in endowing the workers with the means of laying drone- 
eggs, when there is no queen in the colony to be fecundated 
by them. But Nature does nothing without purpose. The 
main cause of the loss of the queen, when there is no brood 
fit to raise others (107), and therefore, no hopes of sur- 
vival for the colony, is usually the death of the young queen 
in her bridal flight (122). At some seasons, the drones 
are scarce, and a young queen may be compelled to make 
several trips before she finds one. If she gets lost, the hive 



76 PHYSIOLOGY OP THE HO]STEY-BEE. 

having remained queenless for at least eight or ten days 
(109), the brood is too old to be used to raise another, 
and the colony is doomed. That other colonies may not be 
victims of similar accidents, owing to the scarcity of 
drones, Nature endows this worthless colony with the fac- 
ulty of drone-raising. 

It is by the same provision of Nature that unhealthy 
trees, on the eve of death, are seen covered with blossoms 
and fruits. They make the strongest efforts to save their 
race from extinction, and perish afterwards. 

178. The drone-laying of worker-bees is easily discov- 
ered by the Apiarist. Their eggs are laid without order, 
some cells containing grown larvae, or sealed pupee, by the 
side of cells containing eggs ; while the eggs of a queen are 
very regularly laid. Huber states that the fertile workers 
prefer large cells in which to deposit their drone eggs, re- 
sorting to small ones, only when unable to find those of 
greater diameter. A hive in our Apiary having much 
worker-comb, but only a small piece of drone size, a fertile 
worker filled the latter so entirely with eggs that some of 
the cells contained three or four each. 

179. Sometimes the bees do not seem to know that these 
eggs are drone-eggs, and in their eagerness to raise a queen, 
they treat some of them as such, by enlarging their cells 
and feeding them on special food (109). The poor over- 
fed drones, thus raised, usually perish in the cell (136). 
The workers soon dwindle awa}^, and the colony perishes. 

180. They often even fail to raise any queen from brood, 
which may be given them by the Apiarist, unless some 
hatching bees are given at the same time. The latter, when 
informed of the needs of the colony, usually succeed in 
raising a queen. The introduction of a laying-queen in a 
laying-worker colony, is the best remedy. (533.) 

181. The bees of the same colonjr understand each other 
very well for all their necessities, and they work with an 



THE WORKER-BEE. 77 

entrain which is truly admirable. They know each other, 
probably by smell, for it is very rare to see a bee of the 
hive treated as a robber (664). They never use their 
sting except to defend themselves, when hurt, or their 
home, when they think it is threatened. 

182. Their life is short, but their age depends very much 
upon their greater or less exposure to injurious influences, 
and severe labors. Those reared in the Spring and early 
part of Summer, upon whom the heaviest labors of the hive 
devolve, appear to live not more than thirty-five days, on an 
average ; while those bred at the close of Summer, and early 
in Autumn, being able to spend a large part of their time 
in repose, attain a much greater age. It is very evident 
that " the bee " (to use the words of a quaint old writer) 
"is a Summer bird;" and that, with the exception of the 
queen, none live to be a year old. 

If an Italian queen be given, in the working season, to a 
swarm of common bees, in about three months none of the 
latter will be found in the colony, and as the black queen 
removed has left eggs in the cells, which take twenty-one 
days to hatch, it is evident that the bees all die from fatigue 
or accident in the remaining seventy days, making their 
average life thirty-five days in the working season. 

The age which individual members of the community may 
attain, must not be confounded with that of the colony. 
Bees have been known to occupy the same domicile for a 
great number of years. We have seen flourishing colonies 
more than twenty years old ; the Abbe Delia Rocca speaks 
of some over forty years old ; and Stoche says, that he saw 
a colony, which he was assured had swarmed annually for 
forty-six years! "Such cases have led to the erroneous 
opinion, that bees are a long-lived race. But this, as Dr. 
Evans* has observed, is just as wise as if a stranger, con- 

* Dr. Evans was an English physician, and the author of a beautiful poem 
on bees. 



78 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 

templating a populous city, and personally unacquainted 
with its inhabitants, should, on paying it a second visit, 
many years after, and finding it equally populous, imagine 
that it was peopled by the same individuals, not one of whom 
might then be living. 

'Like leaves on trees, the race of bees is found, 
Now green in youth, now withering on the ground, 
Another race the Spring or Fall supplies, 
They droop successive, and successive rise.' " 

Evans. 

Apiarists, unaware of the brevity of the bee's life, have 
often constructed huge "bee-palaces" and large closets, vain- 
ly imagining that the bees would fill them, being unable to 
see any reason why a colony should not increase until it 
numbers its inhabitants by millions or billions. But as the 
bees can never at one time equal, still less exceed, the num- 
ber which the queen is capable of producing in a season, 
these spacious dwellings have always an abundance of spare 
room. It seems strange that men can be thus deceived, 
when often in their own Apiary they have healthy stocks, 
which, though they have not swarmed for a year or more, 
are no more populous in the Spring, than those which have 
regularly parted with vigorous colonies. 

It is certain that the Creator has wisely set a limit to the 
increase of numbers in a single colony ; and we shall venture 
to assign a reason for this. Suppose he had given to the 
bee a length of life as great as the horse or the cow, and had 
made each queen capable of laying daily some hundreds of 
thousands of eggs ; or had given several hundred queens to 
each hive ; then a colony must have gone on increasing, un- 
til it became a scourge rather than a benefit to man. In the 
warm climates of which the bee is a native, it would have 
established itself in some cavern or capacious cleft in the 
rocks, and would soon have become so powerful as to bid de- 
fiance to all attempts to appropriate the avails of its labors. 



THE DRONE. 79 

183. There is something cruel in the habits of the bee. 
Whenever one of them becomes unable to work from some 
cause or other, if she does not perish in her efforts to go to 
the fields, the other bees drag her out pitilessly ; their love 
being concentrated on the whole family, not on a single 
individual. Yet, when one is hurt, and complains, hundreds 
of others resent the injury and are ready to avenge her. 

184. Notched and ragged wings and shiny bodies, in- 
stead of gray hairs and wrinkled faces, are the signs of old 
age in the bee, indicating that its season of toil will soon be 
over. They appear to die rather suddenly ; and often spend 
their last days, and even their last hours, in useful labors. 

Place yourself before a hive, and see the indefatigable 
energy of these industrious veterans, toiling along with their 
heavy burdens, side by side with their more youthful com- 
peers, and then judge if, while qualified for useful labor, 
you ought ever to surrender yourself to slothful indulgence. 

Let the cheerful hum of their busy old age inspire you 
with better resolutions, and teach you how much nobler it 
is to die with harness on, in the active discharge of the du- 
ties of life. 

The Drones. 

185. The drones are the male bees. They are much 
larger and stouter than either the queen or workers ; although 

their bodies are not quite so long 
as that of the queen. They have 
no sting (78) with which to de- 
fend themselves ; and no suitable 
proboscis (48) for gathering 
honey from the flowers ; no baskets 
on their thighs (59) for holding 
Fig - 31, bee-bread, and no pouches (201) 

on their abdomens for secreting wax. They are, therefore, 
physically disqualified for the ordinary work of the hive. 




80 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 

Their proper office is to impregnate the young queens. 

" Their short proboscis sips 
No luscious nectar from the wild thyme's lips, 
From the lime's leaf no amber drops they steal, 
Nor bear their grooveloss thighs the foodful meal : 
On other's toils in pamper'd leisure thrive 
The lazy fathers of the industrious hive." 

Evans. 

186. The drones begin to make their appearance in 
April or May ; earlier or later, according to the forwardness 
of the season, and the strength of the colony. Like the other 
inhabitants of the hive they cannot perform the work for 
which they are intended, till at least one week old. They 
go out of the hives only when the weather is warm, and at 
mid- day. 

187. As we have seen (122), the mating of the queen 
with a drone always takes place in the air. Physiologists 
say that it cannot be otherwise, because the sexual organs 
of the drone cannot be extruded unless his abdomen is 
swelled by the filling of all the tracheae with air. This hap- 
pens only in swift flight (74). 

Dzierzon supposes that the sound of the queen's wings, 
when she is in the air, excites the drones. Evidently their 
eyes (11) and ears (25) which are highly developed, as 
proven by Cheshire, help them also in the search of the 
queen, which is their sole occupation, when in the field. In 
the interior of the hive, they are never seen to notice her ; 
so that she is not molested, even if thousands are members 
of the same colony with herself. But outside of the hive, 
they readily follow her, led, according to Dzierzon, by the 
peculiar hum of her flight, and certainly also, by the senses 
of smell and of sight, which are more perfect than those of 
the worker, most likely for this single purpose. 

" When the queen flies abroad, the fleetest drone is more likely 
to succeed in his addresses than another, and thus he impresses 
upon posterity some part of his own superior activity and en- 



Plate 7. 




F. R. CHESHIRE, F. L. S., F. R. M. S. 
Author of " Bees and Bee- 



This writer is mentioned pages 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, 20, 22, 

23, 24, 27, 30, 37, 59, 71, 72, 80, 81, 89, 99, US, 119, 124, 142, 186, 

338, 341, 376, 415, 445, 446, 447, 450, 453, 454. 



THE DRONE. 81 

ergy. The slow and weak in the race die without heirs, so that 
the survival of the fittest is not an accident, but a predetermina- 
tion. In previous chapters we have considered his highly-devel- 
oped eyes, meeting at the vertex of his head, his multitudinous 
smell-hollows, and his strong large wings, the advantage of 
which now appears in a clearer light; his quickness in discover- 
ing a mate, whose neighborhood is to him filled with irresistible 
odours, and his ability in keeping her in view during pursuit, are 

no less helpful to his purpose than fleetness on the wing " 

— (Cheshire.) 

188. The drone perishes in the act of impregnating the 
queen. Although, when cut into two pieces, each piece 
will retain its vitality for a long time, we accidentally ascer- 
tained, in the Summer of 1852, that if his abdomen is gently 
pressed, and sometimes if several are closely held in the 
warm hand, the male organ will often be permanently ex- 
truded, with a motion very like the popping of roasted pop- 
corn ; and the insect, with a shiver, will curl up and die, as 
quickly as if blasted with the lightning's stroke. This singu- 
lar provision is unquestionably intended to give additional 
security to the queen when she leaves her hive to have inter- 
course with the drone. Huber first discovered that she 
returned with the male organ torn from the drone, and still 
adhering to her body. If it were not for this arrangement, 
her spermatheca could not be filled, unless she remained so 
long in the air with the drone, as to incur a very great risk 
of being • devoured by birds. In one instance, some days 
after the impregnation of a queen, we found the male organ,* 

* We give, as interesting in this connection , the following extract from Mr. 
Langstroth's journal: "August 25th, 1852.— Found the male organ protruding 
from a young queen; could not remove it without exerting so much force that 
I feared it would kill her. Dr. Joseph Leidy examined this queea-bee with 
the microscope, so as to demonstrate that— to use his words — 'it was the penis 
audits appendages of a male, corresponding in all its anatomical peculiarities, 
with the same organs examined, at the same time, in other drones. The tes- 
ticles and vana defereutia of these drones were found to be full of the spermatic 
fluid. The *pt>rin ath em of the queen was distended with the same semi-fluid, 
spermatic matter.' This one examination demonstrate that the drones are 
males, and that they impregnate the queen by actual coition. " 
6 



82 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 



in a dried state, adhering so firmly to her body, that it 
could not be removed without tearing her to pieces. 




Fig. 32. 
THE ORGANS OF THE DRONE. 

(Magnified. FromGirard.) 
a, a, testicles; b,b, mucous glands ; r, seminal duct; d, part in which the 
spermatophore is formed; e, hollow horns and penis; f, spermatozoids, 
much magnified. 

189. The number of drones in a hive is often very great, 
amounting not merely to hundreds, but sometimes to thous- 
ands. As a single one will impregnate a queen for life, it 
would seem that only a few should be reared. But as sex- 
ual intercourse always takes place high up in the air, the 
3^oung queens must necessarily leave the hive ; and it is 
very important to their safety that they should be sure to 
find a drone without being compelled to make frequent ex- 
cursions ; for being larger than workers, and less active on 
the wing, queens are more exposed to be caught by birds, 
or destroyed by sudden gusts of wind. 

In a large Apiary, a few drones in each hive, or the num- 



THE DRONE. 83 

ber usually found in one, would suffice. Under such cir- 
cumstances bees are not in a state of nature, like a colony 
living in a forest, which often has no neighbors for miles. 

A good stock, even in our climate, sometimes sends out 
three or more swarms, and in the tropical climates, of 
which the bee is probably a native, they increase with aston- 
ishing rapidity.* Every new swarm, except the first, is led 
off by a young queen; and as she is never impregnated 
until she has been established as the head of a separate fam- 
ily, it is important that each should be accompanied by a 
goodly number of drones : this requires the production of a 
large number in the parent-hive. 

190. This necessity no longer exists when the bee is do- 
mesticated, since several colonies are kept in the same 
place, and the breeding of so many drones should be dis- 
couraged. Their brood takes useful space that might as 
well be occupied with worker-brood. One thousand good- 
for-nothing drones take up as much breeding-space as fif- 
teen hundred workers (224), and require as much food, 
with negative results. Some hives, in a state of nature, 
produce so many drones that a great part of the surplus 
crop is disposed of by these voracious loafers. Besides, the 
comparatively large volume of the male organs, in connec- 
tion with the gluttony of the drones, explains why they void 
their dejections in the hive, while workers retain them till 
they are on the wing (73), and why the cells of the combs 
of hives which have a large quantity of these gormands, 
become dark and thick sooner. 

The importance of preventing the over-production of 
drones has been corroborated by the discovery of Mr. P. J. 
Mahan, that those leaving the hive have quite a large drop 
of honey in their stomachs — while those returning from 



* At Sydney, in Australia, a single colony is stated to have multiplied to 300, 
in three years. 



84 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 



their pleasure excursions, having digested their dinners, are 
prepared for a new supply. 

Aristotle (" History of Animals," Book IX, Chap. XI) 
speaks of the irregular and thick combs built by some colo- 
nies, and the superabundance of drones issuing from them. 
He describes their excursions as follows : 

" The drones, when they go abroad, nse into the air with a 
circular flight, as though to take violent exercise, and when they 
have taken enough, return home, and gorge themselves with 
honey." 

" The drone," says quaint old Butler (1609) " is a gross, sting- 
less bee, that spendeth his time in gluttony and idleness. For 
howsoever he brave it with his round velvet cap, his side gown, 
his full paunch, and his loud voice, yet is he but an idle compan- 
ion, living by the sweat of others' brows. He worketh not at 
all, either at home or abroad, and yet spendeth as much as two 
laborers : you shall never find his maw without a drop of the 
purest nectar. In the heat of the day he flieth abroad, aloft and 
about, and that with no small noise, as though he would do some 
great act ; but it is only for his pleasure, and to get him a stom- 
ach, and then returns he presently to his cheer." 

191. The bee-keepers in Aristotle's time were in the 
habit of destroying the 
excess of drones. They 
excluded them from the 
hive — when taking 
their accustomed airing 
— by contracting the 
entrances with a kind 
of basket work. Butler 
recommends a similar 
trap, which he calls a 
'''■drone-pot." 

One of the modern inventions to destroy them is Alley's 
drone-trap* improved by J. A. Batchelder ; but it is much 

* The perforated zinc, used in drone-traps, which we think was invented by 
Coilin, (" Guide, " p. 3. Paris, 18Go), is so cat, that a worker-bee can pass 
through its openings, but neither queen nor drone can pass through them. 




Fig. 33. 

alley's drone-trap 



THE DRONE. 85 

better to save the bees the labor and expense of rear- 
ing such a host of useless consumers. This can readily 
be done, when we have the control of the combs ; for, 
by removing the drone-comb, and supplying its place with 
worker-cells, the over-production of drones may be easily 
prevented. Those who object to this, as interfering with 
nature, should remember that the bee is not in a state 
of nature ; and that the same objection might, with equal 
force, be urged against killing off the supernumerary males 
of our domestic animals. 

192. Soon after the harvest is over, or if there is a lull 
in the yield of honey, the drones are expelled from the hive. 
The worker-bees sting them, or gnaw the roots of their 
wings, so that when driven from the hive, they cannot re- 
turn. If not ejected in either of these summary ways, they 
are so persecuted and starved, that they soon perish. At 
such times they often retreat from the comb, and keep by 
themselves upon the sides or bottom-board of the hive. 
The hatred of the bees extends even to the unhatched 
young, which are mercilessly pulled from the cells and de- 
stroyed with the rest. 

Healthy colonies almost always destroy the drones, as soon 
as forage becomes scarce. In the vicinity of Philadelphia, 
there were only a few days in June, 1858, when it did not 
rain, and in that month the drones were destroyed in most 
of the hives. When the weather became more propitious, 
others were bred to take their place. In seasons when the 
honey-harvest has been abundant and long protracted, we 
have known the drones to be retained, in Northern Massa- 
chusetts, until the 1st of November. If bees could gather 
honey and could swarm the whole year, the drones would 
probably die a natural death. 

How wonderful that instinct which, when there is no longer 
any occasion for their services, impels the bees to destroy 
those members of the colony reared with such devoted 
attention ! 



86 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 

193. It is interesting to notice the actions of the drones 
when they are excluded from the hive. For a while they 
eagerly search for a wider entrance, or strive to force their 
bulky bodies through the narrow gateway. Finding this to 

be in vain, they solicit honey from the workers, and when 
refreshed, renew their efforts for admission, expressing, all 
the while, with plaintive notes, their deep sense of such a 
cruel exclusion. The bee-keeper, however, is deaf to their 
entreaties ; it is better for him that they should stay with- 
out, and better for them — if they only knew it — to perish 
by his hands, than to be starved or butchered by the unfeel- 
ing workers. Towards dark, or early in the morning — 
when clustered, for warmth, in the portico — they may be 
brushed into a vessel of water, and given to chickens, which 
will soon learn to devour them. 

194. Drones are sometimes raised in worker-cells (150). 
They are smaller in size, but apparently as perfect as the 
full-size drones, all their organs being well developed. 

For the stages of development of drones, see the com- 
parative table at the end of this chapter (197). 

195. We have repeatedly queried, why impregnation 
might not have taken place in the hive, instead of in the 
open air. A few dozen drones would then have sufficed for 
the wants of any colony, even if it swarmed, as in warm 
climates, half a dozen times, or oftener, in the same season ; 
and the young queens would have incurred no risks by 
leaving the hive for fecundation. 

For a long time we could not perceive the wisdom of the 
existing arrangement ; although we never doubted that 
there was a satisfactory reason for this seeming imperfec- 
tion. To have supposed otherwise, would have been en- 
tirely unphilosophical, when we know that with the increase 
of knowledge many mysteries in nature, once inexplicable, 
have been fully cleared up. 

The disposition cherished by many students of nature, to 



THE DRONE. 87 

reject some of the doctrines of revealed religion, is not 
prompted by a true philosophy. Neither our ignorance of 
all the facts necessary to their fall elucidation, nor our ina- 
bility to harmonize these facts in their mutual relations and 
dependencies, will justify ns in rejecting any truth which 
God hath seen fit to reveal, either in the book of Nature, or 
in His holy Word. The man who would substitute his own 
speculations for the divine teachings, has embarked without 
rudder or chart, pilot or compass, on an uncertain ocean of 
theory and conjecture ; unless he turns his prow from its 
fatal course, storms and whirlwinds will thicken in gloom on 
his " voyage of life ; " no "Sun of Righteousness" will ever 
brighten for him the expanse of dreary waters ; no favoring 
gales will waft his shattered bark to a peaceful haven. 

The thoughtful reader will require no apology for this 
moralizing strain, nor blame a clergyman, if sometimes for- 
getting to speak as the mere naturalist, he endeavors to find 

" Tongues in trees, books in running brooks, 
" Sermons in ' bees,' and ' God ' in every thing." 

(102.) 

196. To return to the attempt to account for the exist- 
ence of so many drones. If a farmer persists in what is 
called " breeding in and in," that is, without changing the 
blood, the ultimate degeneracy of his stock is the conse- 
quence.* This law extends, as far as we know, to all ani- 
mal life, man himself not being exempt from its influence. 
Have we any reason to suppose that the bee is an exception? 
or that degeneracy would not ensue, unless some provision 
were made to counteract the tendency to " in-and-in breed- 
ing?" If fecundation had taken place in the hive, the 
queen would have been impregnated by drones from a com- 

* In the above, Mr. Langstroth refers to indiscriminate breeding. In-and-in 
breeding, by selection, intensifies certain qualities, such as the development of 
fat, or of muscle, but it also intensifies the defects, generally causing a de- 
crease of vitality or of health in the race. 



88 



PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 



mon parent ; and the same result must have taken place in 
each successive generation, until the whole species would 
eventually have "runout." By the present arrangement, 
the young queens, when they leave the hive, often find the 
air swarming with drones, many of which belong to other 
colonies, and thus, by crossing the breed, provision is con- 
stantly made to prevent deterioration. 

Experience has proved that impregnation may be effected 
not only when there are no drones in the colony of the 
young queen, but even when there are none in her immedi- 
ate neighborhood. Intercourse takes place very high in the 
air (perhaps that less risk may be incurred from birds), 
and this favors the crossing of stocks. 

197. " Comparative Table of the Normal Duration 
of the Bee's Transformations from Eggs to Winged 
Insects. 



Rggs 

Growth of larva . 
Spinning of cocoon . 
Period of rest 
Metamorphosis into pupa 
Duration of this stage . 





Queen. 


Worker. 


Drone. 


. . days 


. 3 


3 


3 




. 5J 


6 


6£ 




. 1 


2 


n 




. 2 


2 


3 




. 1 


1 


1 




. 3£ 


7 


9 



Average time from egg to winged insect 16 



21 



24 




HONEY-COMB and HOOD. 

A little under natural size. 

c, queen-cell with lid, as it often app< ars after the queen has hatched out of it; 

b, uuhatched queen-cell; c, remains of a queen-cell; d. queen-cell whose 

inmate has been destroyed; n, queen-cell in the midst of a comb; 

c, cells containing honey; /, cells with worker brood; 

g, cells with drone brood. 



COMB. 



89 



CHAPTER H. 



THE BUILDING OF BEES. COMB. 



198. When a swarm (406) has found a suitable habi- 
tation, some of the bees clean it of its rubbish, if neces- 
sary, while others, at once, prepare to build the furniture, 
which is intended as cradles for the young bees, and as a 
store-room for the provisions, and is called comb. 

According to Webster, this word is probably taken from 
£he Anglo-Saxon "comb," which means a hollow; the 
combs being hollow structures, with exceedingly light 
walls. 

199. The combs are usually begun at the highest point 
of the hive and built downwards, yet, when some breaking 
happens, the bees sometimes build them upwards; but 
they are far from having the usual regularity. Combs are 
made of wax, a natural secretion which is produced by bees 
as cattle produce fat, by eating. 



200. " Wax is not chemically a fat or glyceride,yet it is nearly 

allied to the fats in atomic 
constitution, and the physi- 
ological conditions favouring 
the formation of one are cu- 
riously similar to those aiding 
in the production of the other. 
We put our poultry up to fat 
in confinement, with partial 
light, to secure bodily inac- 
tivity, we keep warm and 
feed highly. Our bees, under Nature's teaching, put themselves 
up to yield wax under conditions so parallel, that the suitability 
of the fatting coops is vindicated."— (Cheshire.) 




Fig. 34. 
WAX SCALES, 

(Magnified.) 



90 



THE BUILDING OF BEES. 



201. If they remain quietly clustered together, when 

gorged with honey, or any 
liquid sweet, the wax is se- 
creted in the shape of deli- 
cate scales in four small 
pouches, on each side of the 
abdomen of worker-bees. 




Fig. 35. 

SECRETION OF WAX SCALES. 

(Magnified.) 



"These scales, of an irreg- 
ular pentagonal shape, are so 



(From the "inu s triertemenenzeitu W .») tMn and ligM? that Qne hun _ 

drerl of them hardly weigh as much as a kernel of wheat." — (Du- 
bini, "L'Ape.") 

202. In the young bees, which are endowed with a great 
appetite, they form, probably, without their knowledge, dur- 
ing the honey season ; and if there is no place to use them, 
they are gathered in small knots here and there. This 




Fig. 36. 
THE WAX-PRODUCING ORGAN OF THE WORKER-BEE. 

(Magnified. From Girard.) 

only happens when the combs are entirely filled and sealed. 
It has been noticed, most especially, in hives in which a 
comb had been broken down by heat. (333.) In such 
cases, many of the bees gorge themselves with the wasting 
honey, and cluster on the outside, until the heat has sub- 
sided, and the running honey has been gathered up. 



COMB. 91 

Scales of wax, in lumps, can then be found where they have 
clustered. 

203. Although the faculty of producing wax is dimin- 
ished in old bees, who are subject to the natural law which 
makes it more difficult to fatten an old animal, it is proved 
that they also produce small scales of wax. 

"During the active storing of the past season, especially when 
comb building was in rapid progress, 1 found that nearly every 
bee taken from the liowers contained wax scales of varying sizes 
in the wax-pockets." — (A. J. Cook.) 

204. The first condition indispensable for bees to pro- 
duce wax, is to have the stomach well filled. 

It is an interesting fact that honey-gathering and comb- 
building go on simultaneously ; so that when one stops, the 
other ceases also. As soon as the honey harvest begins to 
fail, so that consumption is in advance of production, the 
bees cease to build new comb, even though large portions 
of' their hive are unfilled. When honey no longer abounds 
in the fields, it is wisely ordered that they should not con- 
sume, in comb-building, the treasures which may be needed 
for Winter use. What safer rule could have been given 
them? 

It takes about twenty-four hours, for a bee's food to be- 
come transformed into wax. 

SO 5. " Having filled themselves with honey, they gather in 
chains ; not in a single group, but in a number of groups, hang- 
ing in a parallel curtain, in the direction of the comb to be con- 
structed. Thus a bee clings to the ceiling with her claws, or the 
sticky rubber of her feet, her posterior limbs hanging down ; 
another bee grapples the claws of these posterior feet, with the 
claws of her anterior limbs, letting her hind limbs hang also, to 
be grappled by a third, and so on, till the first chain meets an- 
other, and both united form an arch, top downward, (fig. 37.) 
This single chain becomes compound when several are in the 
same line (fig. 3S), and grouped near one another." — (Sartori and 
Rauschenfels, " L' Apicoltura in Italia," Milan, 1878.) 



92 THE BUILDING OF BEES. 

206. " If we examine the bees closely during the season of 
comb-building and honey-gathering, we shall find many of them 
with the wax scales protruding between the rings that form the 
body, and these scales are either picked from their bodies, or 
from the bottom of the hive or honey boxes in which they are 
building. If a bee is obliged to carry one of these wax scales 
but a short distance, he takes it in his mandibles, and looks as 
business-like with it thus, as a carpenter with a board on his 
shoulder. If he has to carry it from the bottom of the honey box, 
he takes it in a way that I cannot explain any better than to say 
he slips it under his chin, in the mandibles or jaws. When thus 
equipped, you would never know he was encumbered with any- 
thing, unless it chanced to slip out, when he will very dextrously 
tuck it back with one of his forefeet. The little plate of wax 





Fig. 37. Fig. 38. 

is so warm, from being kept under his chin, as to be quite soft 
when it gets back ; and as he takes it out, and gives it a pinch 
against the comb where the building is going on, one would 
think he might stop a while and put it into place ; but not he ; 
for off he scampers and twists around so many different ways, 
you might think he was not one of the working kind at all. An- 
other follows after him sooner or later, and gives the wax a pinch, 
or a little scraping or burnishing with his polished mandibles, 
then another, and so on, and the sum total of all these manoeu- 
vres is that the comb seems almost to grow out of nothing ; yet 
no bee ever makes a cell himself, and no comb building is ever 
done by any bee while standing in a cell ; neither do the bees ever 
stand in rows and ' excavate,' or any thing of the kind." 



COMB. 93 

" The finished comb is the result of the united efforts of the 
moving, restless mass, and the great mystery is, that anything 
so wonderful can ever result at all, from such a mixed-up, skip- 
ping about way of working, as they seem to have." 

" When the cells are built out only part way, they are filled 
with honey or eggs, and the length is increased when they feel 
disposed, or 'get around to it, perhaps; as a thick rim is left 
around the upper edge of the cell, they have the material at 
hand, to lengthen it at any time. This thick rim is also very 
necessary to give the bees a secure foothold, for the sides of the 
cells are so thin, they would be very apt to break down with even 
the light weight of a bee. When honey is coming in rapidly, and 
the bees are crowded for room to store it, their eagerness is so 
plainly apparent, as they push the work along, that they fairly 
seem to quiver with excitement; but, for all that, they skip 
about from one cell to another in the same way, no one bee 
working in the same spot to exceed a minute or two, at the very 
outside. Very frequently, after one has bent a piece of wax a 
certain way, the next tips it in the opposite direction, and so 
on until completion ; but after all have given it a twist or a pull, 
it is found in pretty nearly the right spot. As near as I can dis- 
cover, they moisten the thin ribbons of wax, with some sort of 
fluid or saliva (41). As the bee always preserves the thick rib* or 
rim of the comb he is working, the looker-on would suppose he 
was making the walls of a considerable thickness, but if we drive 
him away, and break this rim, we will find that his mandibles 
have come so nearly together, that the wax between them, be- 
yond the rim, is almost as thin as a tissue paper." — (A. I. Root, 
"A. B. C. of Bee Culture.") 

207. It is very difficult to ascertain who first discovered 
these scales of wax. According to Mr. S. Wagner, J. A. 
Overbeck, in his " Glossarium Melliturgium," p. 89, Bremen, 
1765, claims that a Hanoverian pastor, named Herman C. 
Hornbostel, described them in the Hamburg Library, about 
the year 1745. 

* The constant preserving of this rih or heavy edge of the comh while the 
work progresses, explains why old comb lengthened and sealed with new wax, 
sometimes retains a part of its dark color throughout. Some of the old wax 
is undoubtedly mixed with the new, in the constant remodeling of this heavier 
edge, till the comb is sealed. 



94 THE BUILDING OF BEES. 

They were also discovered, in Germany, by a farmer. 
This discovery was communicated to the naturalist Bonnet 
by Willelmi, under the date of August 22, 1765. (Huber.) 

In 1779, Thos. Wildman had noticed the scales of wax 
on the abdomen of the workers ; and he was so thoroughly 
convinced that wax was secreted from honey, that he rec- 
ommended feeding new swarms, when the weather is stormy, 
that they may sooner build comb for the eggs of the queen. 

From the books written in the French language, it seems 
that it was Duchet, who, in his "Culture des Abeilles, ,, 
printed inFriburg in 1771, wrote first that beeswax is pro- 
duced from honey, of which they eat a large quantity, 
" which is cooked in their bodies, as in a stove," increasing 
thereby the warmth of the hive, and that beeswax " exudes 
out of this stove" through the rings of their bod}^ which are 
near the corselet. This idea of Duchet led Beaunier to ex- 
amine bees, and he discovered that they produce, at one 
time, not two scales of wax only, but nine, the last ring 
having seemed to produce one. He adds : 

20 S. " To employ this material, bees use their jaws, their 
tongues, and their antennae. In favorable years you can see 
a great quantity of these pieces of wax which have fallen on the 
bottom of the hives." — (" Traite sur l'Education des Abeilles," 
Vendome, 1808.) 

209. When bees are building combs, some scales of wax 
are often found on the bottom board, the bees having been 
unable to use them before they became too tough. Some- 
times thejr pick them up afterwards and use them ; some 
races of bees, the Italian (551), for instance, often use 
also pieces of old combs, which may be within their reach. 

The comb, thus built, is easily detected on account of its 
darker color. Queen-cells seem to be always built of par- 
ticles, taken from the comb on which they hang, and are 
never of pure wax (104). 



COMB. 95 

" Thus, filtered through yon flatterer's folded mail, 
Clings the cooled wax, and hardens to a scale. 
Swift, at the well-known call, the ready train 
(For not a buz boon Nature breathes in vain) 
Spring to each falling flake, and bear along 
Their glossy burdens to the builder throng. 
These with sharp sickle, or with sharper tooth. 
Pare each excrescence, and each angle smoothe, 
Till now, in finish'd pride, two radiant rows 
Of snow white cells one mutual base disclose. 
Six shining panels gird each polish'd round; 
The door's fine rim, with waxen fillet bound; 
While walls so thin, with sister walls combined, 
Weak in themselves, a sure dependence And." 

Evans. 

210. The cells of bees are found to fulfill perfectly the 
most subtle conditions of an intricate mathematical problem. 

Let it be required to find what shape a given quantity of 
matter must take, in order to have the greatest capacity 
and strength, occupying, at the same time, the least space, 
and consuming the least labor in its construction. When 
this problem is solved by the most refined mathematical 
processes, the answer is the hexagonal or six-sided cell of 
the honey-bee, with its three four-sided figures at the base! 

The shape of these figures cannot be altered ever so lit- 
tle, except for the worse. 

211. The bottom of each cell is formed of three lozenges, 
the latter forming one third of the base of three opposite 
cells. 

" If the little lozenge plates were square, we should have the 
same arrangement, but the bottom would be too sharp pointed as 
it were, to use wax with the best economy, or to best accommodate 
the body of the infantile bee. Should we, on the contrary, make 
the lozenge a little longer, w r e should have the bottom of the cell 
too nearly flat to use wax with most economy, or for the comfort 
of the young bee." (A. I. Root, "A. B. C. of Bee Culture.") 

212. "There are only three possible figures of the cells," 
says Dr. Reid, " which can make them all equal and similar, 



96 THE BUILDING OF BEES. 

without any useless spaces between them. These are the equi- 
lateral triangle, the square, and the regular hexagon. It is well 
known to mathematicians, that there is not a fourth way possible 
in which a plane may be cut into little spaces that shall be equal, 
similar, and regular, without leaving any interstices." 

An equilateral triangle would have been impossible for 
an insect with a round body to build. A circle seems to be 
the best shape for the development of the larvae ; but such 
a figure would have caused a needless sacrifice of space, 
materials, and strength. The body of the immature insect, 
as it undergoes its changes, is charged with a superabun- 
dance of moisture, which passes off through the reticulated 
cover of its cell ; may not a hexagon, therefore, while ap- 
proaching so nearly to the shape of a circle, as not to 
incommode the young bee, furnish, in its six corners, the 
necessary vacancies for a more thorough ventilation? 

Is it credible that these little insects can unite so many 
requisites in the construction of their cells? 

213. The fact is that the hexagonal shape of the cells is 
naturally produced, and wihout any calculation, by the bee. 
She wants to build each cell round ; but as every cell 
touches the next ones, and as she does not wish to leave any 
space between, each one of the cells flattens at the contact, 
as would soap bubbles if all of the same diameter. It is the 
same for the lozenges of the bottom. The bee, wanting the 
bottom of the cell concave inside, makes it, naturally, con- 
vex outside. As this convexity projects on the opposite 
side of the median line, the bee who builds the opposite 
cells begins, naturally, on the tip of the convexity, the 
walls of cells just begun, since she wants also to make their 
bottom concave. The final result is that one-third of the 
bottom of each of three cells makes the bottom of the one 
cell opposite, and each one of the lozenges is flattened, so 
as not to encroach on the opposite cells. 

214. The cells are not horizontal, but inclined from the 




AND SHAPE OF THE BASE. 
(From Sartori and Rauschenfels.) 



COMB. 97 

orifice to the bottom (fig. 39), so as to be filled with honey 

more easily. The thickness 
of worker-brood comb is 
about one inch, with cells 
opening on each side. The 
distance between combs is 
about T 7 g- of an inch. This 
space is not always exact, 
but is never under T 5 g-, that be- 
Fig 3 9 ing necessary for the bees to 

showing the slope of the cells travel between the combs 

without interfering with one 
another. These distances 

can be a little increased without troubling the bees, and we 

place the combs in our hives one and a half inches from 

center to center, for easier manipulation. 

215. When the combs are newly built, they are white, 
but they get color shortly afterwards, especially during the 
harvest of yellow honey. When used for breeding, the cast 
skins and residues from the larvae (167) give them a dark 
color, which becomes nearly black with age, especially if 
bees have suffered with diarrhoea (784), or raised a great 
many drones (73-190). 

As wax is a bad conductor, the combs aid in keeping the 
bees warm, and there is less risk of the honey candying 
in the cells. 

216. Is the size of the cells mathematically exact? 
When the first Republic of France inaugurated the decimal 
system of weights and measures, Reaumur proposed to take 
the cells of the bees as a standard to establish the basis of 
the system, but it was ascertained that cells are not uni- 
form in size. 

217. The cells in which workers are reared are the 
smallest. Those in which the drones are reared are larger. 
It is generally admitted that five worker-cells measure about 

7 



98 THE BUILDING OF BEES. 

a linear inch, or twenty-five to the square inch, but this is 
incorrect. If five worker-cells measured exactly an inch, 
the number contained in a square inch would be about 
twenty-nine. As they are usually somewhat larger, the av- 
erage number in a square inch is a trifle over twenty-seven. 
Drone-cells number about eighteen, in the same area. 

L'Abbe Collin measured the average dimensions of the 
cells very carefully, and the measurements given in his 
work (Paris, 1865) are about the same as those given above. 

i % 



wmmmwwf. 



218. The queen-cells have already been described. 
(104.) 

As bees, in building their cells, cannot pass immediately 
from one size to another, they display an admirable sagac- 
ity in making the transition by a set of irregular inter- 
mediate cells. Fig. 40 exhibits an accurate and beautiful 
representation of comb, drawn for this work from nature, 



COMB. 99 

by M. M. Tidd, and engraved by D. T. Smith, both of 
Boston Mass. The cells are of the size of nature. The 
large ones are drone- cells, and the small ones, worker- cells. 
The irregular, five-sided cells between them, show how 
bees pass from one size to another. 

Mr. Cheshire, in his book, has criticized this engraving, 
on account of the acuteness of the cells of transition, or as 
he terms them, of accommodation. He writes: "The head 
of a bee could not reach the bottom of the acute angles as 
they are represented." Our first impression, on reading 
the criticism, was that Mr. Cheshire was right. Then the 
thought that Mr. Langstroth had his engravings made from 
nature led us to inspect some combs, when we found several 
cells of accommodation with angles at least as acute as in 
the cut. But we noticed also that this acuity exists only 
on the rims of the cells and not inside ; the bees, inside the 
cells, having pushed out the walls, to be enabled to reach 
the bottom of the angles which were thus rounded inside.* 

219. The combs are built with such economy, that the 
entire construction of a hive of a capacity of nine gallons 
does not yield more than two pounds of bees-wax when 
melted. 

According to Dr. Donhoff, the thickness of the sides of 
a cell in a new comb is only the one hundred and eightieth 
part of an inch ! Cheshire states that he found some that 
measured only the four hundreth of an inch. 

220. Most Apiarists before Huber's time supposed that 
wax was made from pollen, either in a crude or digested 
state. Confining a new swarm of bees to a hive in a dark 
and cool room, at the end of five days he found several beau- 
tiful white combs in their tenement ; these being taken from 
them, and the bees supplied with honey and water, new 

•Mr. Langstroth wrote to us, in regard to this criticism of Mr. Cheshire: 
* ' This piece of comh was actually copied from nature hy a man of extraordi- 
nary accuracy . " 

LOFC. 



100 THE BUILDING OP BEES. 

combs were again constructed. Seven times in succession 
their combs were removed, and were in each instance re- 
placed, the bees being all the time prevented from ranging 
the fields to supply themselves with pollen. By subsequent 
experiments, he proved that sugar-syrup answered the 
same end with honey. Giving an imprisoned swarm an 
abundance of fruit and pollen, he found that they subsisted 
on the fruit, but refused to touch the pollen ; and that no 
combs were constructed, nor any wax-scales formed in their 
pouches. 

Notwithstanding Huber's extreme caution and unwearied 
patience in conducting these experiments, he did not dis- 
cover the whole truth on this important subject. Though he 
demonstrated that bees can construct comb from honey or 
sugar, without the aid of pollen, and that they cannot 
make it from pollen, without honey or sugar, he did not 
prove that when permanently deprived of it they can con- 
tinue to work in wax, or if they can, that the pollen does 
not aid in its elaboration. 

Some pollei is alwa} T s found in the stomach of wax-pro- 
ducing workers, and they never build comb so rapidly as 
when they have free access to this article. It must, 
therefore, in some way, assist the bee in producing it. 

221. The experiments made by Berlepsch show that 
bees, which are deprived of pollen when they construct 
combs, consume from sixteen to nineteen pounds of honey 
to produce a pound of comb, while, if provided with it, the 
amount of honey is reduced to ten or twelve pounds. If 
the experiment is continued without pollen for some time, 
the bees become exhausted and begin to perish. It is 
therefore demonstrated that although nitrogen, which is 
one of the elements of pollen, does not enter into the 
composition of bees- wax (222), yet it is indispensable as 
food to sustain the strength of bees during their work in 
comb making. 



COMB. 101 

222. Honey and sugar contain by weight about eight 
pounds of oxygen to one of carbon and hydrogen. When 
converted into wax, these proportions are remarkably 
changed, the wax containing only one pound of oxygen to 
more than sixteen of hydrogen and carbon. Now as oxy- 
gen is the grand supporter of animal heat, the large quan- 
tity consumed in secreting wax aids in generating that 
extraordinary heat which always accompanies comb-build- 
ing, and which enables the bees to mould the softened wax 
into such exquisitely delicate and beautiful forms. This 
interesting instance of adaptation, so clearly pointing to 
the Divine Wisdom, seems to have escaped the notice of 
previous writers. 

223. Careful experiments prove that from ten to sixteen 
pounds of honey are usually required to make a single 
pound of wax. As wax is an animal oil, secreted chiefly 
from honey, this fact will not appear incredible to those 
who are aware how many pounds of corn or hay must be fed 
to cattle to have them gain a single pound of fat. From 
experiments made by Mr. P. Viallon here, and by Mr. De 
Lay ens in France, it seems that in good circumstances 
bees use only about seven pounds of honey to produce a 
pound of wax. 

Many bee-keepers are unaware of the value of empty 
comb. Suppose honey to be worth only ten cents per pound, 
and comb, when rendered into wax, to be worth thirty 
cents, the Apiarist who melts a pound of comb loses largely 
by the operation, even without estimating the time his bees 
have consumed in building it. It is, therefore, considered 
a first principle in bee-culture never to melt good worker- 
combs. A strong colony of bees, in the height of the honey- 
harvest, will fill them with very great rapidity. 

With the box hives (274), but little use can be made 
of empty comb, unless it is new and can be put into the 
surplus honey-boxes (728), but by the use of movable 



102 THE BUILDING OF BEES. 

frames, every good piece of worker-comb may be given to 
the bees (286). 

224. As we have seen before (217), while the small 
cells are designated as worker-cells, the large ones, which 
vary greatly in depth and are more especially prepared to 
store hone}', and in which the drones are raised, are known 
as store or drone-cells. 

225. Generally, bees build a larger number of worker 
than of store-cells ; yet they do not follow any regulation 
as to the relative proportion in the quantity of each kind. 
Not two colonies, in the same Apiary, will show the same 
number of large cells, even when the hives are of equal 
capacity, and even if the building was done in circumstances 
seemingly identical. You will find a colony whose comb 
will consist of two-thirds worker and one-third store cells, 
the adjacent colon}' will have but one-sixth of the latter, 
another a few square inches only. In a hive all the large 
cells are together, in another they are scattered. Some of 
these drone-combs are built from top to bottom of the hive, 
others are at the top only, others at the side, or at the bot- 
tom, or scattered, etc. 

226. These facts, not explainable by themselves, when 
added to the wonderful habits of bees, have led to the theory 
that it was with foresight, with perfect knowledge and for a 
special purpose, that bees construct such a varied propor- 
tion of the two kinds of cells. Bees are represented as 
knowing the sex of the eggs which each kind of cells will 
receive ; and foreseeing that their queen may not live long 
and that the young queens have to be fecundated (120), 
they build large cells in which drones could be raised. 

227. We have demonstrated (213) that bees construct 
their cells without any geometrical calculation. We had 
previously (142) established that the queen does not know 
the sex of the eggs she is laying, and although regretting 
to decrease the charm with which bees were surrounded by 



COMB. 103 

the imagination of bee-keepers, we will try to demonstrate 
that, in the building of cells, they simply follow their incli- 
nation ; as do all other beings, in the acts that they perform. 
But we have first to put forward a few facts, which are gen- 
erally accepted, on which we will ground our reasoning. 

228. 1st, A swarm (406), hived on empty frames, 
always begins its constructions by worker or small cells : 

2d, If the queen of a swarm is very prolific (97), very 
little of large, or store-comb, will generally be built by her 
bees: 

3d, If, on the contrary, from old age, or from some 
other cause, the fecundity of a queen is deficient (155), 
her bees will fill the hive with a large quantity of store- 
combs : 

4th, If the queen of a swarm is removed, or dies while 
the bees are building, all the combs, made during her ab- 
sence, will consist of store-cells : 

5th, If all or part of the store-combs of a hive are re- 
moved, the bees will rebuild large cells, at least three times 
out of four. 

229. Besides these five propositions, we will remember 
that queens prefer to lay in small cells (145), and that they 
seem to know how to ask the workers to narrow the orifices 
of the store-cells, when there are no others in the hive to 
receive their impregnated eggs (146 to 148). 

We have to remark also that, while the queen prefers the 
narrow cells, the workers prefer to build the wide ones, 
since they cease to construct worker-cells when the queen is 
gone, or when she is not on the spot, to remind them, by 
her presence, that she needs narrow cells for her impregnated 
eggs (146), and we will find out the cause of such differ- 
ences, in the number and in the position of each kind of 
combs, by following the work of the bees, in some of the 
circumstances in which they may have to build. 

230. (a) The queen of a swarm is very prolific, the crop 



104 THE BUILDING OF BEES. 

is abundant, and the building goes on very fast. The queen 
lays in all the cells, as soon as begun, disputing for them 
with the workers, who want to fill them with honey. As 
she follows the builders, waiting for cells, no large cells 
are made. After about three weeks, the bees of the first 
laid eggs begin to leave their cells (171); the queen 
goes back to fill these empty cells, and the workers, hence- 
forth free from restraint, follow their preferences by build- 
ing store-combs. Result: A few large cells, placed on the 
side or at the back of the hive. 

231. (b) This other swarm has a queen as prolific as 
the one above. For two weeks she follows the builders as 
the first did, laying in the cells as soon as built. But, the 
crop stopping suddenly, both the building and the laying 
slacken, when only two-thirds of the constructions are 
made. After three weeks of scarcity, abundance comes 
again, and the building is resumed. But the queen is no 
longer among the workers, waiting for cells ; she is at the 
other end of the hive, where she lays in the cells which 
were left empty when the larvae that they harbored were 
born. Result : About one-third of store-combs. 

232. (c) This third swarm has a queen whose prolific- 
ness is deficient, yet she has been able to follow the build- 
ers for a few days. She is at last left behind, and the 
workers begin combs with large cells. On reaching these 
cells, one or two days later, she passes over them without 
laying (149), and rejoins the builders, who hasten to coin- 
ply with her desire to have worker-cells. But she is soon 
left behind for the second time, and the workers, unre- 
strained again, build large cells till she again rejoins them, 
to be again left behind, and so on. Result : Parts of store- 
combs mixed, here and there, with worker-combs. 

233. (d) We have removed from a hive all its drone- 
combs ; but as the queen is occupied in filling empty worker- 
cells in another part of the hive, the builders, following their 



PROPOLIS. 105 

preference, reconstruct large cells, thus annulling our work 
of removal. 

234. (e) We have given one or two combs to a swarm 
as soon as it was hived (422), and we wonder why its bees 
have built so much drone-comb. The cause is obvious: 
the queen, finding empty cells to fill, remained a long time 
far from the builders, who, following their inclination, con- 
structed drone-cells. 

235. We have to utilize the facts just enunciated. If 
we desire to prevent a swarm from building too many store- 
combs, we should watch the builders, and remove the large 
cells as soon as built ; these combs, if worth saving, may be 
used in the surplus sections (728). We must remember 
that, to succeed, it is indispensable that no other cells but 
the ones to be rebuilt be left at the disposal of the queen. 
The same rule applies also to the removal of drone-combs 
at any time ; and as the fulfilling of this condition is not 
always possible, it is better to replace the removed combs 
with worker comb or comb foundation (674). 

The above rules are not without exceptions, for unnoticed 
circumstances may have some influence on the building of 
combs ; but we think that we have stated the main causes 
of variation. 



Propolis. 

236. This substance, which is used by the bees to coat 
the inside of the bee-hive, and make it water and air tight, 
is obtained from the resinous buds and limbs of trees ; the 
different varieties of poplar yield a rich supply. When first 
gathered, it is usually of a bright golden color, and so sticky 
that the bees never store it in cells, but apply it at once to 
the purposes for which they procured it. If a bee is caught 
while bringing in a load, it will be found to adhere very 
firmly to her legs. 



\ 



106 THE BUILDING OF BEES. 

Huber planted in Spring some branches of the wild pop- 
lar, before the leaves were developed, and placed them in 
pots near his Apiary ; the bees alighted on them, separated 
the folds of the large buds with their forceps, extracted the 
varnish in threads, and loaded with it, first one thigh and 
then the other ; for they convey it like pollen, from one leg 
to the other. We have seen them thus remove the warm 
propolis from old bottom-boards standing in the sun. 

Propolis is frequently gathered from the alder, horse- 
chestnut, birch, and willow ; and as some think, from pines 
and other trees of the fir kind. Bees will often enter var- 
nishing shops, attracted evidently by their smell ; and in the 
vicinity of Matamoras, Mexico, where propolis seems to be 
scarce, we saw them using green paint from window-blinds, 
and pitch from the rigging of a vessel. Bevan mentions the 
fact of their carrying off a composition of wax and turpen- 
tine from the trees to which it had been applied. Dr. 
Evans says he has seen them collect the balsamic varnish 
which coats the young blossom-buds of the holly-hock, and 
has known them to rest at least ten minutes on the same 
bud, moulding the balsam with their fore-feet, and trans- 
ferring it to the hinder legs, as described by Huber. 

" With merry hum the Willow's copse they scale, 
The Fir's dark pyramid, or Poplar pale ; 
Scoop from the Alder's leaf its oozy flood, 
Or strip the Chestnut's resin-coated bud ; 
Skim the light tear that tips Narcissus' ray, 
Or round the Hollyhock's hoar fragrance play ; 
Then waft their nut-brown loads exulting home, 
That form a fret-work for the future comb ; 
Caulk every chink where rushing winds may roar, 
And seal their circling ramparts to the floor." 

Evans. 

237. A mixture of wax and propolis being much more 
adhesive than wax alone, serves admirably to strengthen the 
attachments of the combs to the top and sides of the hive. 



PROPOLIS. 107 

If the combs are not filled with honey or brood soon after 
they are built, they are varnished with a delicate coating of 
propolis, which adds greatly to their strength ; but as this 
natural varnish impairs their snowy whiteness, the bees 
ought not to be allowed access to the surplus honey-recep- 
tacles, except when about ready to store them with honey. 
(734.) 

238. Bees make a very liberal use of propolis to fill any 
crevices about their premises ; and as the natural summer- 
heat of the hive keeps it soft, the bee-moth (802) selects it 
as a place of deposit for her eggs. Hives ought, therefore, to 
be made of lumber entirely free from cracks. The corners, 
which the bees usually fill with propolis, may have a melted 
mixture run into them, consisting of three parts of resin and 
one of bees-wax ; this remaining hard during the hottest 
weather, will bid defiance to the moth. 

239. Bees gather propolis, especially when they can find 
neither honey nor pollen in the fields. Thus, during the 
honey-crop, very little of it is taken. In soma countries, 
they use it much more plentifully, owing to its being found 
more readily. 

240. Propolis is hard and brittle in the Winter, and its 
use by the bees to glue up all parts of the hive, has created 
the greatest objection to drawers, close-fitting frames, 
hinged doors, etc., with which some patent hives are pro- 
vided, and which become entirely immovable, when once 
coated with it. It is, at all times, the greatest hindrance 
to the neat handling of the combs, and in warm weather 
daubs the hands of the Apiarist. It can only be cleaned 
from the fingers by the use, in place of soap, of a few drops 
of turpentine, alcohol, spirits of hartshorn, or ether. 

241. Propolis is sometimes put to a very curious use by 
the bees. 

"A snail, having crept into one of M. Reaumur's hives early 
in the morning, after crawling about for some time, adhered, by 



108 THE BUILDING OF BEES. 

means of its own slime, to one of the glass panes. The bees hav- 
ing discovered the snail, surrounded it, and formed a border of 
propolis round the verge of its shell, and fastened it so securely 
to the glass that it became immovable." — (Bevan.) 

" Forever closed the impenetrable door; 
It naught avails that in its torpid veins 
Year after year, life's loitering spark remains." 

Evans. 

" Maraldi, another eminent Apiarist, states that a snail without 
a shell having entered one of his hives, the bees, as soon as they 
observed it, stung it to death ; after which, being unable to dis- 
lodge it, they covered it all over with an impervious coat of 
propolis." 

" For soon in fearless ire, their wonder lost, 
Spring fiercely from the comb the indignant host, 
Lay the pierced monster breathless on the ground, 
And clap in joy their victor pinions round : 
While all in vain concurrent numbers strive 
To heave the slime-girt giant from the hive — 
Sure not alone by force instinctive swayed, 
But blest with reason's soul-directing aid, 
Alike in man or bee, they haste to pour, 
Thick, hardening as it falls, the flaky shower ; 
Embalmed in shroud of glue the mummy lies, 
No worms invade, no foul miasmas rise." 

Evans 

242. In these instances, who can withhold his admiration 
of the ingenuity and judgment of the bees? In the first 
case, a troublesome creature gained admission to the hive, 
which, from its unwieldiness, they could not remove, and 
which, from the impenetrability of its shell, they could not 
destroy ; here, then, their only source was to deprive it of 
locomotion, and to obviate putrefaction ; both which objects 
they accomplished most skillfully and securely, and, as is 
usual with these sagacious creatures, at the least possible 
expense of labor and materials. They applied their cement 
where alone it was required — -round the verge of the shell. 
In the latter case, to obviate the evil of decay, by the total 



PROPOLIS. 109 

exclusion of air, they were obliged to be more lavish in the 
use of their embalming material, and to case over the 
" slime-girt giant," so as to guard themselves from his noi- 
some smell. What means more effectual could human wis- 
dom have devised, under similar circumstances? 

243. In bygone days, it was a prevalent belief, that 
when any member of a family died, the bees knew what 
had happened ; and some were superstitious enough to put 
the hives in mourning, to pacify their sorrowing occupants ; 
imagining that, unless this was done, the bees would never 
afterwards prosper!* It was frequently asserted that they 
sometimes took their loss so much to heart, as to alight 
upon the coffin whenever it was exposed. A clergyman 
told the writer that he attended a funeral, where, as soon as 
the coffin was brought from the house, the bees gathered 
upon it so as to excite much alarm. Some years after this 
occurrence, being engaged in varnishing a table, the bees 
alighted upon it in such numbers, as to convince him, that 
love of varnish, rather than sorrow or respect for the dead, 
was the occasion of their conduct at the funeral. How many 
superstitions, believed even by intelligent persons, might be 
as easily explained, if it were possible to ascertain as fully 
all the facts connected with them ! 

244. Commercial Uses of Propolis. — " Dissolved in alcohol 
and filtered, it is used as a varnish, and gives a polish to wood, 
and a golden color to tin. A preparation made with finely-ground 
propolis, gum arabic, incense, storax, benzoin, sugar, nitre, and 
charcoal, in quantities varied at will, is moulded into fumigating 
cones, for perfuming rooms or halls." — (Dubini, Milan, 1881.) 

245. The following letter from a noted Russian Apiarist, 
to Mr. E. Bertrand, editor of the Revue Internationale 
d* Apiculture, of Nyon, Switzerland, one of the most pro- 
gressive bee-publications, will be found of interest: 

* Whittier has written a little poem entitled "Telling the Bees," apropos of 
their knowing of some one's death. 



110 THE BUILDING OF BEES. 

"During my pleasant stay at your pretty villa, I spoke to you 
of the utilization of propolis in the varnish of our wooden ware, 
which resists the dissolving power of hot water so well. I have 
just found a description of the process, and will communicate it 
to you. 

" Propolis is purchased by hucksters, who pay five copecks — a 
little over two cents — and sometimes even less, for permission to 
scrape or plane the propolis from the walls of a hive that has 
lost its bees. The shavings, covered with propolis, are heated, 
put into a wax-press, and subjected to the treatment used in 
the extraction of beeswax ; the propolis is then purified in hot 
water, to which sulphuric acid is added. About fifty per cent, 
of propolis is thus obtained, which sells at forty cents per pound. 

" This propolis is poured into hot linseed-oil and beeswax, in 
the following proportions : Propolis 1, beeswax J, oil 2. Previ- 
ously, the oil should ' linger,' as we say, on the stove, for fifteen 
or twenty days, that is, remain hot without boiling, to give it the 
property of drying. The wooden ware is dipped into the above 
mentioned preparation, and must remain in it ten or fifteen min- 
utes, after which it is cooled, and rubbed and polished with 
woolen rags."— (A. Zoubareff", St. Petersburgh, Sept. 26, 1882.) 

We would suggest to manufacturers of supplies, that the 
soaking or painting of wooden feeders, and of queen-cages, 
with a similar preparation, would prevent the warm feed 
from soaking into the wood. 



HONEY. Ill 



CHAPTER III. 

FOOD OF BEES. HONEY. 

246. The main food of bees is the honey or nectar, pro- 
duced by plants and flowers. That honey is a vegetable 
product was known to the ancient Jews, one of whose Rab- 
bins asks : " Since we may not eat bees, which are unclean, 
why are we allowed to eat honey? " and replies : " Because 
bees do not make honey, but only gather it from plants and 
flowers." 

247. Yet during its sojourn in the honey-sack, the nectar 
undergoes a chemical change. Most of its cane-sugar, or 
saccharose, is changed into grape-sugar, or glucose.* This 
change is due to its being mixed with saliva and gastric 
juice in the honey-sack (63). "But the cane-sugar yet 
remains in large proportion in honey gathered on the moun- 
tains. " — (G-irard. ) 

248. The nectar is produced by the plants in nectarifer- 
ous tissues, in which accumulations of sugar can be found, 
and exudes most frequently through small apertures, named 
stomatce. 

249. It contains more or less water, according to the 
kind of flowers, and the conditions in which it is produced. 
Some flowers give nectar which is almost completely de- 
prived of water. Such is the Fuschia (fig. 41). When the 
nectar of this flower is produced in very dry weather, it 
sometimes crystallizes in the blossom, as it comes in con- 
tact with the air. 

* What is chemically known as glucose should not be confounded with the 
impure glucose of commerce. 



112 



FOOD OF BEES. 



In some other flowers, as in the Fritillaria imperialis, the 
nectar contains as much as nine- 
ty-five per cent of water. If 
we except dry and warm days, 
we can safely assert that, in most 
cases, the proportion of water 
in the nectar varies between 
sixty and eighty per cent. 

250. The quantity of nec- 
tar produced by the flowers 
decreases during drought, and 
increases on the first or sec- 
ond day after a rain. But it 
is then more watery. In some 
seasons the saccharine juices 
abound, while in others they 
are so deficient that bees can 
obtain scarcely any food from 
fields all white with clover. A 
change in the secretion of honey 
will often take place so sud- 
denly, that the bees will, in a 
few hours, pass from idleness 
to great activity. 

As a rule, the quantity of nectar, exuded by the plants, 
varies according to the time of day and atmospheric condi- 
tions. Usually, it is most abundant in the morning. Its 
quantity decreases as the sun rises higher. At three 
o'clock in the afternoon, the flowers give the least nectar. 
Then the yield again increases till dark. In Algeria, Africa, 
in the neighborhood of Blidah, bees cannot find honey later 
than eight in the morning. 

251. It is when the blossom is ready for fertilization, 
that the nectar is most abundant in it ; if it is not gathered 
by insects, it is re-absorbed by the plant and serves, 




HONEY. 113 

together with the sugar accumulated in the ovaries, to 
nourish the seeds. 

252. The accumulations of sugar in the tissues, may 
exist, not only in the flower, but in different parts of plants, 
in the cotyledons, in the leaves, in the stipules, in the brac- 
teas, and between the leaves and twigs. They help the 
development of the tissues. 

Sometimes the nectariferous tissues are destitute of sto- 
matse or openings. Then the accumulated nectar may force 
itself through the cuticle or skin of the plant. 

The water of the sap, which runs incessantly in the plants, 
goes out through the different tissues in unequal quantities ; 
as some tissues are more porous than others. Generally, 
water escapes in the form of steam ; but, in some circum- 
stances, when the air is moist, the water is emitted in liquid 
form, and may carry with it, to the outside, a part of the 
accumulations of sugar through which it has passed, thus 
producing honey- dew. The more sugar this water contains, 
the slower its evaporation will be. 

253. The dampness of the soil and of the air, and a 
temperature producing a profuse transpiration in plants, 
then a sudden stop of transpiration, are the best conditions 
to produce the maximum of nectar in the nectariferous tis- 
sues and of liquid exudations on the outside. 

254. Most of the above statements are taken, or rather 
abridged, from " Les Nectaires," of Gaston Bonnier, a 
professor at the !Ecole Normale Superieure of Paris (1879). 
This work was awarded a medal by the Academy of Science 
of Paris. Bonnier backs his statements with one hundred 
and thirty engravings made from microscopic researches. 

255. He explains, not only how the nectar is formed in 
the blossoms, but also how the extra floral nectar, the so- 
called honey-dew, is produced on different parts of plants, 
or trees. 

He has noticed and described the production of nectar 
8 



114 



FOOD OF BEES. 



( honey- dew without aphides),* on many herbaceous plants, 
and on the following trees or shrubs : Two kinds of oak, 




1 "5 

° a 

o ° 

* £ 

. a ° 

bo i a 

« 1- 

9 & 



• Honey-dew without aphides was noticed in this country, on wheat, and 
even on wheat stubble. (J. O. Shearman, American Bee-Journal, 1887, page 
503.) See also, O. W. Bellemey, "Gleanings," March, 1882, page 398, and 
others. 



HONEY. 115 

the ash, two kinds of linden, the sorb, the barberry, two 
kinds of raspberry, the poplar, the birch, two kinds of 
maple, and the hazel brush. In some parts of Europe, this 
honey-dew is so plentiful, that some Apiarists transport their 
bees to the districts in which it is produced, during its 
yield. (Fig. 42.) 

256. Bees also harvest, in some seasons, a sweet sub- 
stance of poorer quality, which is a discharge from the 
bodies of small aphides or " plant lice.''* 

Messrs. Kirby and Spence, in their interesting work on 
Entomology, have given a description of the honey-dew 
furnished by the aphides: 

" The loves of the ants and the aphides have long been cele- 
brated; you will always find the former very busy on those trees 
and plants on which the latter abound; and, if you examine 
somewhat more closely, you will discover that the object of the 
ants in thus attending upon the aphides, is to obtain the saccha- 
rine fluid secreted by them, which may well be denominated their 
milk. This fluid, which is scarcely inferior to honey in its 
sweetness, issues in limpid drops from the abdomen of these in- 
sects, not only by the ordinary passage, but also, by two setiform 
tubes, placed one on each side, just above it. Their sucker being 
inserted in the tender bark is, without intermission, employed in 
absorbing the sap, which, after it has passed through these or- 
gans, they keep continually discharging. When no ants attend 
them, by a certain jerk of the body, which takes place at regular 
intervals, they ejaculate it to a distance." 

257. "Mr. Knight once observed a shower of honey-dew 
descending in innumerable small globules, near one of his oak 
trees. He cut off one of the branches, took it into the house, 
and, holding it in a stream of light admitted through a small 
opening, distinctly saw the aphides ejecting the fluid from their 
bodies with considerable force, and this accounts for its being 

* The Abbe' Boissierde Sauvages, in 1763, described two species of honey- 
dew. The first kind, he says, has the same origin with the manna on the ash 
and maple trees of Calabria and Brianron, where it flows plentifully from 
their leaves and trunks, and thickens in the form in which it is usually seen. 
— (" Observations sur l'Origine du Miel.") We have received specimens of 
a honey-dew from California, which is said to fall from the oak trees in sta- 
lactites of considerable size. 



116 FOOD OF BEES. 

frequently found in situations where it could not have arrived 
by the mere influence of gravitation. The drops that are thus 
spurted out, unless interrupted by the surrounding foliage, or 
some other interposing body, fall upon the ground; and the 
spots may often be observed, for some time, beneath and around 
the trees, affected with honey-dew, till washed away by the rain. 
The power which these insects possess of ejecting the fluid from 
their bodies, seems to have been wisely instituted to preserve 
cleanliness in each individual fly, and, indeed, for the preserva- 
tion of the whole family ; for, pressing as they do upon one an- 
other, they would otherwise soon be glued together, and rendered 
incapable of stirring. On looking steadfastly at a group of these 
insects {Aphides saliels) while feeding on the bark of the willow, 
their superior size enabled us to perceive some of them elevating 
their bodies and emitting a transparent substance in the form of 
a small shower: 

" Nor scorn ye now, fond elves, the foliage sear, 
When the light aphids, arm'd with puny spear, 
Probe each emulgent vein, till bright below, 
Like falling stars, clear drops of nectar glow." 

Evans. 

258. " Honey-dew usually appears upon the leaves as a vis- 
cid transparent substance, as sweet as honey itself, sometimes in 
the form of globules, at others resembling a syrup. It is gen- 
erally most abundant from the middle of June to the middle of 
July — sometimes as late as September. 

" It is found chiefly upon the oak, the elm, the maple, the plane, 
the sycamore, the lime, the hazel, and the blackberry ; occasion- 
ally also the cherry, currant, and other fruit trees. Sometimes 
only one species of trees is affected at a time. The oak gener- 
ally affords the largest quantity. At the season of its greatest 
abundance, the happy, humming noise of the bees may be heard 
at a considerable distance, sometimes nearly equalling in loud- 
ness the united hum of swarming." — (Bevan.) 

In some seasons, bees gather large supplies from these 
honey- dews, but it is abundant onty once in three or four 
years. The honey obtained from this source is usually of a 
dark color, and seldom of a very good quality. 

259. It is very difficult to ascertain, at all times, the 
special source of honey-dew, whether from the trees or from 



HONEY. 117 

the aphides. In order to give all sides a hearing, we will 
cite a letter from Mr. Bonnier on this subject, and leave 
the reader to draw his own conclusions : 

" Plant lice are seen even on trees, that have no extra floral 
nectaries. They do not produce exudations (properly speaking), 
but bore the tissues to eat the contents. Their presence on the 
plant has no connection with that of the nectar. The excreuien- 
tal liquid of aphides is not equally sweet in all the species, and 
the bees harvest only that which is very sweet. They generally 
prefer the true honey-dew (miellee), which exudes from the leaves 
at certain times, and contains mannite and saccharine matter. 

" I have seen bees, however, harvesting the sweet liquid of the 
aphides and the true miellee at the same time, on the aspen, maple, 
and sycamore. 

" I have rarely seen the extra floral nectar of the special nec- 
taries overflow and run in drops, but the true miellee of trees may 
fall in small drops, and some observers conclude from this fact, 
that it is produced by aphides. I have often seen some trees, and 
even all the trees, of a timber, covered with an abundant miellee, 
falling in small drops, although there was not a single louse on 
the higher limbs. 

" To sum up, we must not confound the three kinds of sweet 
liquid, which may be produced outside the flowers : 1st, The 
extra-floral nectar proper, produced, like the nectar of flowers, 
from special sugar tissues ; 2d, The true miellee, produced on the 
surface of the leaves of trees or shrubs, without the action of 
aphides; 3d, The excretion, more or less sweet, sometimes con- 
taining very little sugar, abundantly produced by a great num- 
ber of aphides." 

260. In some blossoms, as in the red clover, the corolla 
is so deep and narrow, that the nectar is out of reach of the 
honey-bee. Larger insects, such as the bumble-bee, or 
smaller ones, as some wasps, enjoy it to the exclusion of 
our favorites. Yet in some seasons, we have seen bees 
working on red-clover bloom, and have attributed this to 
the corollas being shorter, owing to drouth, or scant growth. 
Mr. Bonnier has discovered that, in some such flowers, the 
nectar is sometimes so abundant, that the bees can reach 
it. It is true that insects, and even bees, can tear the 



118 FOOD OF BEES. 

tender corollas of some blossoms, opposite the honey recep- 
tacle, to reach the nectar, but this is of such rare instance, 
in the honey-bee, that it cannot be considered of any prac- 
tical value. 

261. The honey, when harvested, is stored in the rear of 
the hive, above the brood, and as near it as possible. 

When just gathered, it is too watery to be preserved for 
the use of the bees. To evaporate this water, they force a 
strong current of air through the hive, and the bee-keeper 
can ascertain the days of large honey-yield, by the greater 
roar of the bees in front of their hive during the night fol- 
lowing. If a strong colony is put on a platform scale, it 
will be found, during the height of the honey-harvest, to gain 
a number of pounds on a pleasant day. Much of this weight 
will be lost in the night, from the evaporation of the newly- 
gathered honey. A thorough upward ventilation, in hot 
weather, will therefore contribute to increase the ripening 
of honey. 

When the cell is about full, the bees seal it with a flat 
cover or capping made of wax. This capping is begun at 
the lower edge of the cell, and is raised gradually, as the 
honey is deposited within, till the cell is entirely sealed. 
These cappings being flat, depressed, or uneven, are easily 
distinguished from the caps of the brood, which are convex 
and of a darker color. 

262. Are the caps of the honey-cells air-tight? This 
much-debated question is not yet satisfactorily answered. 

The caps of the brood-cells, made of pollen and wax, are 
undoubtedly porous enough to allow the air to reach the 
larva; and some Apiarists question the imperviousness 
of the sealing of hone} T -comb. Mr. Cheshire himself, while 
of opinion that " the bee aims at compact coverings for her 
honey," says that " not more than ten percent, of these are 
absolutely impervious to air." Yet his own description of 
the cause of the well-known whiteness of the cappings, 



POLLEN. 119 

owing to the air which is left behind and " cannot escape," 
would prove that these cappings are originally made as air- 
tight as a thin coat of wax can make them. The fact that 
honey shrinks and swells inside of the cell, is only a proof 
that, like many other things, its volume depends on the 
temperature. Again, its fermenting in sealed cells, proves 
only that it contains the elements of fermentation, and these 
can be developed at certain degrees of temperature, even 
in air-tight vessels. Mr. Cheshire's tests of honey-combs, 
steeped in water, to ascertain whether the honey in sealed 
cells would absorb moisture and expand, have been tried by 
us with altogether contrary results. The difference of 
opinion on this subject may be due to the fact that the cap- 
pings are very fragile, and crack imperceptibly, when ex- 
posed to variations of temperature outside of the hive. 

Would it be possible that the thin coat of wax, though 
evidently air-tight, be, in some circumstances, porous 
enough to allow moisture to soak through it slowly, like 
water through leather? 



Pollen. 

263. The pollen, or fertilizing dust of flowers, is gath- 
ered by the bees from blossoms, and is indispensable to the 
nourishment of their young — repeated experiments having 
proved that brood cannot be raised without it. It is very 
rich in the nitrogenous substances which are not contained 
in honey, and without which ample nourishment could not 
be furnished for the development of the growing bee. Dr. 
Hunter, on dissecting some immature bees, found that their 
stomachs contained pollen, but not a particle of honey. 

We are indebted to Huber for the discovery, that pollen 
is the principal food of the young bees. As large supplies 
were often found in hives whose inmates had starved, it was 



120 FOOD OF BEES. 

evident that, without honey, it could not support the mature 
beas ; and this led former observers to conclude that it 
served for the building of comb. Huber, after demonstrat- 
ing that wax can be secreted from an entirely different sub- 
stance, soon ascertained that pollen was used for the 
nourishment of the embryo bees. Confining some bees to 
their hive without any pollen, he supplied them with honey, 
eggs, and larvae. In a short time, the young all perished. 
A fresh supply of brood being given to them, with an ample 
allowance of pollen, the development of the larvse pro- 
ceeded in the natural way. 

264. We had an excellent opportunity of testing the 
value of this substance, in the backward Spring of 1852. On 
the oth of February, we opened a hive containing an artifi- 
cial swarm of the previous year, and found many of the cells 
filled with brood. The combs being examined on the 23d, 
contained neither eggs, brood nor bee-bread ; and the col- 
ony was supplied with pollen from another hive ; the next 
day, a large number of eggs were found in the cells. When 
this supply was exhausted, laying again ceased, and was 
only resumed when more was furnished. During the time 
of these experiments, the weather was so unpromising, that 
the bees were unable to leave the hive. 

Dzierzon is of opinion that bees can furnish food for their 
youn^, without pollen ; although he admits that they can do 
it only for a short time, and at a great expense of vital en- 
ergy ; just as the strength of an animal nursing its young is 
rapidly reduced, if, for want of proper food, the very sub- 
stance of the mother's body must be converted into milk. 
The experiment just described does not corroborate this 
theory, but confirms Huber's view, that pollen is indispen- 
sable to the development of brood. 

Gundelach, an able German Apiarist, says that if a col- 
ony with a fertile queen be confined to an empty hive, and 
supplied with huney, comb will be rapidly built, and the 



POLLEN. 121 

cells filled with eggs, which in due time will be hatched ; 
but the worms will all die within twenty-four hours. 

Sometimes bees, unable to feed their brood for lack of 
pollen, desert their hives (407). 

265. In September, 1856, we put a very large colony ol 
bees into a new hive, to determine some points on which we 
were then experimenting. The weather was fine, and they 
gathered pollen, and built comb very rapidly ; still for ten 
days, the queen-bee deposited no eggs in the cells. During 
all that time, these bees stored very little pollen in the 
combs. One of the days being so stormy that they could not 
go abroad, they were supplied with rye flour (207), none of 
which, although very greedily appropriated, could be found 
in the cells. During all this time, as there was no brood to 
be fed, the pollen must have been used by the bees either 
for nourishment, or to assist them in secreting wax ; or, as 
we believe, for both these purposes. 

266. Bees prefer to gather fresh pollen, even when there 
are large accumulations of old stores in the cells. With hives 
giving the control of the combs, the surplus of old colonies 
may be made to supply the deficiency of young ones ; the 
latter, in Spring, being often destitute of this important 
article.* 

If honey and pollen can both be obtained from the same 
blossom, the industrious insect usually gathers a load of each. 
To prove this, let a few pollen-gatherers be dissected when 
honey is plenty ; and their honey-sacks will ordinarily be 
full. 

When the bee brings home a load of pollen, she stores it 
away, by inserting her body in a cell, and brushing it from 
her legs ; it is then carefully packed down, being often cov- 
ered with honey, and sealed over with wax. Pollen is sel- 
dom deposited in any except worker-cells. This fact 

* Although the bees of queenless colonies do not usually go in quest of pollen , 
some occasionally harvest it, and as it is not used, it accumulates in the hive. 



122 FOOD OF BEES. 

supports the idea that large cells are not built to raise brood 
(224). 

Aristotle observed, that a bee, in gathering pollen, con- 
fines herself to the kind of blossom on which she begins, even 
if it is not so abundant as some others ; thus a ball of this 
substance taken from her thigh, is found to be of a uniform 
color throughout ; the load of one insect being yellow, of 
another, red, and of a third, brown ; the color varying with 
that of the plant from which the supply was obtained. They 
may prefer to gather a load from a single species of plant, 
because the pollen of different kinds does not pack so well 
together. Reaumur has estimated, that a good colony may 
gather and use as much as one hundred pounds of it in a 
year. 

267. When bees cannot find pollen, in early Spring, they 
will gather flour, or meal, or even fine sawdust, as a substi- 
tute. This was noticed by Hartlib, as early as 1655. 

Dzierzon, early in the Spring, observed his bees bringing 
rj^e-meal to their hives from a neighboring mill, before they 
could procure any pollen from natural supplies. The hint 
was not lost ; and it is now a common practice, wherever 
bee-keeping is extensively carried on, to supply the bees 
early in the season with this article. Shallow troughs or 
boxes are set not far from the Apiaries, filled about two 
inches deep with finely-ground, dry, unbolted rye-meal, oat- 
meal or even ivith flour. Where bolted flour, or meal, is 
given, it should be tightly pressed with the hands, to pre- 
vent the bees from drowning in it. lo attract them to it, 
we bait them with a few old combs, or a little honey. 

The boxes must be placed in a warm spot sheltered from 
the wind. Thousands of bees, when the weather is favor- 
able, resort eagerly to them, and return heavily laden to 
their hives. 

This artificial pollen or bee-bread, is kneaded by them 
with saliva, or honey brought from the hive. This is easily 



POLLEN. 123 

ascertained by tasting the little pellets, which in the hurry 
are loosened from their baskets, and fall to the bottom of 
the flour box. In fine, mild weather, they labor at this 
work with great industry ; preferring the meal to the old 
pollen stored in their combs. They thus breed early, and 
rapidly recruit their numbers. The feeding is continued 
till, the blossoms furnishing a preferable article, they cease 
to carry off the meal. 

We will here add that, as a rule, colonies that do not 
carry in meal or pollen, at the opening of Spring, are without 
brood, either because they are queenless, or from want of 
honey, or from some other cause. 

The discovery of flour, as a substitute for pollen, removes 
a very serious obstacle to the culture of bees. In many 
districts, there is for a short time such an abundant supply 
of honey, that almost any number of strong colonies will, 
in a good season, lay up enough for themselves, and a large 
surplus for their owners. In many of these districts, how- 
ever, the supply of pollen is often quite insufficient, and in 
Spring, the swarms of the previous year are so destitute, 
that unless the season is early, the production of brood is 
seriously checked, and the colony cannot avail itself prop- 
erly of the superabundant harvest of honey. 

268. As bees carry on their bodies the pollen, or fertil- 
izing substance, they aid most powerfully in the impregna- 
tion of plants, while prying into the blossoms in search of 
honey or bee-bread. In genial seasons, fruit will often set 
abundantly, even if no bees are kept in its vicinity ; but 
many Springs are so unpropitious, that often during the 
critical period of blossoming, the sun shines for only a few 
hours, so that those only can reasonably expect a remuner- 
ating crop whose trees are all murmuring with the pleasant 
hum of bees. 

269. One of the laws of Nature is that the crossing of 
the races produces offspring with greater vigor, endurance, 



124 



FOOD OF BEES. 



and faculty of reproduction. Fruits succeed better, when 
the pollen, which fertilizes the pistil, conies from some other 
blossom ; and the insects are intrusted with the mission of 
transporting this pollen from one blossom to another, while 
gathering it for their own use. In some plants, fertilization 
would have been impossible, without the help of insects. 
For instance, some plants, such as the willows, are diecious, 
having their male organs on one tree, and their female or- 
gans on another. The bees after visiting the one for pollen, 
go to the other for honey, and the fecundation is effected. 




B 

Fig, 43. 
SCROPHULARIA NODOSA. 

(Magnified. From Cheshire.) 

A, young blossom. s, stigma. 

B, section of blossom, ra, calyx; r, corolla; aa, 
, stigma; I, lip; a, anthers; », nectar; bl, black lip. 

C, older blossom, s, dropping stigma; a, anthers. 



aborted anthers; 



In some other plants, such as the Scrophularia Nodosa 
(Simpson honey plant — Fig. 43), the female organs are 
ready for fecundation earlier than the male. But as the 
flower secretes a large quantity of honey, which is replaced 
in its nectaries as fast as the bees gather it, the bees, in 
traveling from one blossom to another, carry the pollen of 
an old blossom to the pistil of a younger one, and fertiliza- 
tion is accomplished. Some plants, corn, for instance, pro- 



TOLLEN. 125 

duce such quantities of pollen, that the agency of insects is 
less indispensable to the fertilization of their blossoms. 

270. To determine the advantages which flowers derive 
from insect fertilization, any one can wrap a few flowers in 
gauze, just before the opening of the bud, and compare the 
number of fertile seeds, from flowers thus treated, with 
those of other blossoms. 

We have heard farmers mention the fact that the first 
crop of red clover furnishes but little seed, compared with 
the second crop. This is because the bumble-bees, which 
help its fertilization, are very scarce in Spring, while they 
are much more plentiful in Summer. " In Australia it was 
found impossible to obtain seed from red clover until the 
bumble-bees were imported into that country " (Darwin). 

A large fruit-grower told us that his cherries were a very 
uncertain crop, a cold northeast storm frequently prevailing 
when they were in blossom. He had noticed that, if the 
sun shone only for a couple of hours, the bees secured him 
a crop. 

If those horticulturists, who regard the bee as an enemy, 
could exterminate the race, they would act with as little 
wisdom as those who attempt to banish from their inhospit- 
able premises every insectivorous bird, which helps itself to 
a small part of the abundance it has aided in producing. 
By making judicious efforts early in the Spring, to entrap 
the mother-wasps and hornets, which alone survive the 
Winter, an effectual blow may be struck at some of the 
worst pests of the orchard and garden. In Europe, those 
engaged extensively in the cultivation of fruit, often pay a 
small sum in the Spring for all wasps and hornets destroyed 
in their vicinity. 



126 



FOOD OF BEES. 



Water. 



271. Water is necessary to bees to dissolve the honey, 
which sometimes granulates in the cells, and to raise brood. 
They can raise a certain amount of brood without water, 
but they alwaj^s seem to suffer more or less in consequence 
(682). In the Winter, they breed but little, and the 
moisture which condenses on the walls of the hive is gener- 
ally sufficient. Yet we have noticed that as soon as bees 
are brought out of the cellar (653), if the temperature 
is sufficiently warm, * a great many will be seen sucking 
water. This fact shows that Berlepsch was right when he 
advised bee-keepers to give water to bees during Winter, 
to avoid what he called disease of the thirst. Besides, 
every one may notice that bees take advantage of any warm 
Winter day to bring it to their hives ; and, in early Spring, 
may be seen busily drinking around pumps, drains, and 
other moist places. Later in the season, they sip the dew 
from the grass and leaves. 

272. Every careful bee-keeper will see that his bees are 
well supplied with water. If 

he has not some sunny spot, 
close at hand, where they can 
safely obtain it, he will fur- 
nish them with shallow wood- 
en troughs, or vessels filled 
with floats or straw, from 
which — sheltered from cold 
winds, and warmed by the 
genial rays of the sun — they 
can drink without risk of 
drowning. 

A barrel half filled with Fig. 44. 

earth and then filled with WATER SUPrLY B0TTLE * 

water, in which some water- (From Sar ffi an & i? a a i? 8 ) heufel3 ' ot 




WATER. 127 

cress or other aquatic plants are kept, to preserve it from 
putrefaction, and to prevent the bees from drowning, will 
do very well. For a small Apiary, a jug or bottle (fig. 44), 
filled with water, and inverted on a plate, covered with a 
small piece of carpet, will be sufficient. It can also be given 
in the combs. Mr. Vogel, editor of the Bienen-Zeitung, on 
the 19th of March gave to a colony a comb containing crys- 
tallized honey, and another containing about three-fourths 
of a pound of water. Within sixteen hours, both combs 
were altogether emptied by the bees. 

273. A learned French bee-keeper, Mr. De Layens, 
made many experiments in regard to this matter. 

*' In the month of May, 1878, I put a lump of sugar near a 
spot where a great many bees came for water; they paid no 
attention to it. The sugar was then moistened and covered 
with honey. The bees, attracted by the honey, came in great 
numbers, and sucked up most of the moist sugar. After they 
became accustomed to this, I decreased the moistening, till I 
gave them nothing but dry sugar, when they brought water to 
dissolve the sugar, and removed all except the parts which were 
too hard to be dissolved easily." — (Bulletin de la Suisse, Nov. 1880.) 

The same writer has noticed that, in Spring, if the bees 
are compelled to go very far for water, many of them per- 
ish. He found a loss of three hundred and fifty grammes 
of bees — four-fifths of a pound — from a hive, during a sud- 
den Spring storm. 

From the 10th of April to the 31st of July, forty colonies 
consumed 187 litres of water, about fifty gallons ; the great- 
est quantity used in a day being seven litres, or about fif- 
teen pints. 

That bees do not need water, in circumstances other than 
those above named, is evidenced from the fact that, in im- 
porting bees from Italy, we did not succeed in receiving 
them alive, until our shippers reluctantly consented to send 
them without water (595). 



128 FOOD OF BEES. 



Salt. 



274. Bees seem to be so fond of salt, that they will 
alight upon our hands to lick up the saline perspiration. 

" During the early part of the breeding season," said Dr. Bevan, 
" till the beginning of May, I keep a constant supply of salt and 
water near my Apiary, and find it thronged with bees from early 
morn till late in the evening. About this period the quantity 
they consume is considerable, but afterwards they seem indiffer- 
ent to it. The eagerness they evince for it at one period of the 
season, and their indifference at another, may account for the 
opposite opinions entertained respecting it." 



HIVES WITH IMMOVABLE COMBS. 



129 



CHAPTER IV. 



THE BEE-HIVES. HIVES WITH IMMOVABLE COMBS. 



275. The first hives that were provided for bees were as 
rude as their natural abodes. We do not need to look back 
very far to remember the " bee-gum," so called, probably, 
because it had often been made out of the gum tree, with 
two sticks crossing in the middle, and a rough board nailed 
on top, while a notch in the lower end formed the entrance. 
In the Old World, they manufactured straw or willow 
" skeps " and pottery hives, which are still used in Asia and 
Africa. The earthen hive was simply a tube, laid on its 
side, and closed at each end with a movable wooden disk. 
This disk was removed to take the honey, which is always 
located at the back part of the hives. 




Fig. 45. 
EARTHEN HIVE OF AFRICA AND CYPRUS. 
(Erom "L'Apicoltore," Milan.) 

These earthen hives were, unquestionably, the most 
sensible of those old kinds. In the Islands of Greece they 
were set in thick stone walls, built on purpose with the 
entrance on one side of the wall. Sometimes they were 
located in the walls of the houses, and the honey was 
removed from the inside of the house, or, if in walls, from 
behind, out of the flight of bees. 
9 



130 



THE BEE-HIVES. 



276. To get the honey from the gums, or boxes, the 
bee-keepers used at first to drive the bees to another hive 
(574) and take all the contents. But most of the thus 
impoverished colonies perished. This led to the thought 
that killing bees would be more facile, and the brim- 
stone-pit was invented. This killing of bees was so cus- 
tomary that, about one hundred years ago, Joseph II, 
Emperor of Austria, decreed that every bee-keeper who 
would cut the combs in Spring, instead of brimstoning 
the bees, would receive one florin (about forty cents) per 
colony. 





Fig. 46. 
STRAW HIVE, WITH CAP. 
(From Hamet.) 



Fig. 47. 

BOX HIVE, WITH CAP. 

(From Hamet.) 



277. Nearly sixty years ago, our senior, then a boy, 
saw this harvesting of combs for the first time. Clothed with 
a heavy linen frock, equipped with a mask of wire, 
strong enough to be sword-proof, and sweating under a 
scorching sun in this heavy garment, he helped (?) the old 
priest of his village to prune about twenty colonies, removing 
the back combs with a curved knife, from the upturned 
hives. It was in April ; and, while the crop thus harvested 



HIVES WITH IMMOVABLE COMBS. 



131 



was light, the damage inflicted to the bees was immense, 
for they had to rebuild their combs at a time when queens 
begin their greatest laying. But the bee-keepers of old 
were persuaded that this crop of beeswax was beneficial 
to bees, since it compelled them to make new combs, which 
were considered better than older ones (676). 





Fig. 48. 
STRAW EKE HIVE. 
(FromHamet.) 
B, body; A , hole to connect the 
stories with the surplus cap . 



Fig. 49. 
THE RADOUAN EKE HIVE. 
(From Hamet.) 



278. Some bee-keepers, having noticed that bees place 
their honey at the highest part of the hive, added a cap or 
upper story, which communicated with the hive through a 
hole in the top of the latter (figs. 46 and 47). Still later, 
Apiarists found out that when the hive was very deep and 
the connecting hole small, the bees refused to store their 
honey in the cap, and they made their hives with open ceil- 
ings, replacing the top board of the breeding-story with slats 
or bars. The hives were afterwards divided into several hor- 
izontal sections, called " ekes" (figs. 48 and 49). Instead 
of using a cap, some Apiarists removed the upper story, 
when full of honey, and placed anew story under the others. 



132 THE BEE-HIVES. 

The bees then continued their constructions downwards. 
To separate the sections from one another, they used a wire 
that cut the combs. Butler, in his " Feminine Monarchy," 
1634, shows hives composed of four sections, piled upon one 
another. Palteau, in 1750, advises bee-keepers to use a 
perforated ceiling at the top of each section. Radouan, in 
1821, instead of a perforated ceiling, uses triangular bars, 
to which the bees attach their combs (fig. 49). Chas. 
Soria, in 1845, used these bars at the bottom of each 
story as well as at the top, with bee space between, so that 
they can be removed, exchanged, or reversed, without 
crushing any bees, or damaging a single cell (fig. 50). 






Fig. 50. Fig. 51. 

EKE OF CHAS. SORIA. DIVIDING HIVE .OF JONAS. 

(FromHamet.) DE GELIEU. 

(From Hamet.) 

279. Other Apiarists divided their hives vertically, con- 
formably with the shape of the combs of the bees, which 
hang vertically. If we are correctly informed, it was Jonas 
de Gelieu who inaugurated this style (fig. 51). He made 
his hive divisible into only two parts. GEttl, towards the 
middle of this century, made a straw hive divided into three 
vertical parts. The main advantage of these hives resides 
in the facility of dividing them for artificial swarming. But 
as this method of making artificial swarms is defective, as 
will be shown further, (471), and as all these contri- 



REQUISITES OE A COMPLETE HIYE. 133 

varices did not allow a close study of the habits of the bee, 
or permit the needed manipulations, it became necessary to 
invent a hive whose every comb, and every part, the Apiarist 
could promptly and easily control ; a hive which, to employ 
the forcible expression of Mr. Hamet, could " se demonter 
comme un jeu de marionettes;" (be taken to pieces like a 
puppet-show). 



Requisites of a Complete Hive. 

280. 1. A complete hive should give the Apiarist such 
perfect control of all the combs, that they may be easily 
taken out without cutting them, or exciting the anger of the* 
bees. 

2. It should permit all necessary operations to be per- 
formed without hurting or killing a single bee. 

Some hives are so constructed, that they cannot be used 
without injuring or destroying some of the bees ; and the 
destruction of even a few materially increases the difficulty 
of managing them (399). 

3. It should afford suitable protection against extremes 
of heat and cold, sudden changes of temperature, and the 
injurious effects of dampness. 

The interior of a hive should be dry in Winter, and free 
in Summer from a pent and almost suffocating heat. 

4. Not one unnecessary motion should be required of a 
single bee. 

As the honey-harvest, in most locations, is of short con- 
tinuance, all the arrangements of the hive should facilitate, 
to the utmost, the work of the busy gatherers. Hives 
which compel them to travel with their heavy burdens 
through densely crowded combs, are very objectionable. 
Bees instead of forcing their way through thick clusters, 
must easily pass into the top surplus honey-boxes of the 



134 THE BEE-HIVES. 

hives, from any comb in the hive, and into every box, with- 
out traveling much over the combs. 

5. It should be capable of being readily adjusted to the 
wants of either large or small colonies (349). 

6. It should allow every good piece of worker-comb to be 
given to the bees, instead of melting it into wax, and should 
permit of the use of comb-foundation (674). 

7. It should prevent the over-production of drones, by 
permitting the removal of drone-comb from the hive. 

A hive containing too much comb suitable only for storing 
honey, or raising drones, cannot be expected to prosper. 

8. It should allow the bottom board to be loosened or 
fastened at will, for ventilation, or to clear out the dead 
bees in Winter. If suffered to remain, they often become 
mouldy, and injure the health of the colony. In dragging 
them out, when the weather moderates, the bees often fall 
with them on the snow, and are so chilled, that they never 
rise again; for a bee, in flying away with the dead, fre- 
quently retains its hold until both fall to the ground. 

9. No part of the interior of the hive should be below 
the level of the place of exit. 

If this principle is violated, the bees must, at great dis- 
advantage, drag, up hill, their dead, and all the refuse of 
the hive. 

10. It should afford facilities for feeding bees, both in 
warm and cool weather, in case of need. 

11. It should furnish facilities for enlarging, contracting, 
and closing the entrance, to protect the bees against rob- 
bers ; and when the entrance is altered, the bees ought not, 
as in some hives, to lose valuable time in searching for it. 

12. It should furnish facilities for admitting at once a 
large body of air, that the bees may be tempted to fly out 
and discharge their faeces, on warm days in Winter, or 
early Spring (344). 

If such a free admission of air cannot be given, the bees, 



REQUISITES OP A COMPLETE HIVE. 135 

by losing a favorable opportunity of emptying themselves, 
may suffer from diseases resulting from too long confine- 
ment. 

13. It should allow the bees, together with the heat and 
odor of the main hive, to pass in the freest manner, to the 
surplus honey-receptacles. 

In this respect, many hives with which we are acquainted 
are more or less deficient ; the bees being forced to work in 
receptacles difficult of access, and in which, in cool nights, 
they find it impossible to maintain the requisite heat for 
comb-building, or, in which, in hot days, they cannot send 
air enough to make the place habitable. 

14. Each of the parts of every hive in an Apiary should 
be so made, as to be interchangeable from one hive to an- 
other. In this way, the Apiarist can readily make the 
exchanges of brood, honey, or pollen, which circumstances 
demand. 

15. The hive should permit the surplus honey to be 
taken away in the most convenient, beautiful and salable 
forms. 

16. It should be equally well adapted to be used as a 
swarmer, or non-swarmer. 

17. It should enable the Apiarist to multiply his colonies 
with a certainty and rapidity which are impossible if he 
depends on natural swarming. 

18. It should enable the Apiarist to supply destitute col- 
onies with the means of obtaining a new queen. 

19. It should enable him to catch the queen, for any 
purpose ; especially to remove an old one whose fertility is 
impaired by age. 

20. It should enable a single bee-keeper to superintend 
several hundred colonies for different individuals. 

Many persons would keep bees, if an Apiary, like a gar- 
den, could be superintended by a competent individual. No 
person can agree to do this with the common hives. If the 



136 THE BEE-HIVES. 

bees are allowed to swarm, he may be called in a dozen dif- 
ferent directions at once, and if any accident, such as the 
loss of a queen, happens to the colonies of his customers, 
he can usually apply no remedy. 

21. All the joints of the hive should be water-tight and 
moth-proof (804), and there should be no doors or shutters 
liable to shrink, swell, or get out of order. 

22. A complete hive should be protected against the de- 
structive ravages of mice in Winter (348). 

23. It should permit the honey, after the gathering sea- 
son is over, to be concentrated where the bees will most 
need it. 

24. It should permit the space for spare honey recepta- 
cles to be enlarged or contracted at will, without any alter- 
ation or destruction of existing parts of the hive. 

Without the power to do this, the productive force of a 
colony is in some seasons greatly diminished. 

25. Its surplus honey receptacle should be as close to the 
brood as possible. 

26. A complete hive, while possessing all these requisites, 
should, if possible, combine them in a cheap and simple form, 
adapted to the wants of all who are competent to cultivate 
bees. 

281. There are a few desirables to which a hive, even if 
it were perfect, could make no pretensions ! 

It could not promise splendid results to those who are 
too ignorant or too careless to be entrusted with the man- 
agement of bees. In bee-keeping, as in all other pursuits, 
man must iirst understand his business, and then proceed 
upon the good old maxim, that "the hand of the diligent 
maketh rich." " In a word, to succeed it is indispensable to 
know what to do, and to do it just in time." — (S. Wagner). 

It could not have the talismanic influence to convert a bad 
situation for honey into a good one ; or give the Apiarist an 
abundant harvest, whether the season was productive or 



MOVABLE-COMB HIVES. 137 

otherwise. As well might the farmer seek for some kind of 
wheat which will yield an enormous crop, in any soil, and 
in every season. 

It could not enable the cultivator, while rapidly multiply- 
ing his stocks, to secure the largest yield of honey from his 
bees. As well might the breeder of poultry pretend, that 
in the same year, and from the same stock, he can both 
raise the greatest number of chickens, and sell the largest 
number of eggs. 



MOVABLE-COMB HlVES. 

282. The bee-keepers of Greece and of Candia seem to 
have been the first to provide their hives with movable bars, 
under which bees suspended their combs. Della-Rocca men- 
tions these and gives engravings of them in his work, pub- 
lished in 1790. In 1838, Dzierzon revived this hive and 
improved it. In spite of the difficulty of its management, 
since the combs not being attached to movable-frames, but 




D 

Fig. 52. 
DIVERS MOVABLE BARS TO SUPPORT THE COMBS. 

to top bars (fig. 52), cannot be removed without cutting them 
loose from the sides of the hive, Dzierzon succeeded in 
making discoveries, in bee physiology, which rank among 
the most important (132). His success was marvelous for 
the epoch. Mr. Wagner wrote of him in 1852 : 



138 THE BEE-HIVES. 

283. "As the best test of the value of Mr. Dzierzon's system 
is the results which have been made to flow from it, a brief ac- 
count of its rise and progress may be found interesting. In 1835, 
he commenced bee-keeping in the common way, with twelve 
colonies, and after various mishaps which taught him the defects 
of the common hives and the old mode of management, his stock 
was so reduced, that, in 1838, he had virtually to begin anew. At 
this period he contrived his improved hive, in its ruder form, 
which gave him the command over all the combs, and he began 
to experiment on the theory which observation and study had 
enabled him to devise. Thenceforward his progress was as 
rapid, as his success was complete and triumphant. Though he 
met with frequent reverses, about seventy colonies having been 
stolen from him, sixty destroyed by fire, and twenty-four by a 
flood, yet, in 1846, his stock had increased to three hundred and 
sixty colonies, and he realized from them that year six thousand 
pounds of honey, besides several hundred weight of wax. At the 
same time, most of the cultivators in his vicinity, who pursued 
the common methods, had fewer hives than they had when he 
commenced. 

"In the year 1848, a fatal pestilence, known by the name of 
'foul brood' (TST), prevailed among his bees, and destroyed 
nearly all his colonies before it could be subdued, only about ten 
having escaped the malady which attacked alike the old stocks 
and his artificial swarms. (469). He estimates his entire loss 
that year at over five hundred colonies. Nevertheless, he suc- 
ceeded so well in multiplying by artificial swarms, the few that 
remained healthy, that, in the Fall of 1851, his stock consisted 
of nearly four hundred colonies. He must therefore have multi- 
plied his stocks more than three-fold each year." 

But in the Dzierzon hive, it is often necessary to cut and 
remove many combs to get access to a particular one ; thus 
if the tenth from the end is to be removed, nine must be 
taken out. This hive cannot furnish the surplus honey in a 
form the most salable in our markets, or admitting of safe 
transportation in the comb. Notwithstanding these disad- 
vantages, it has achieved a great triumph in Germany, and 
given a new impulse to the cultivation of bees. 

Dzierzon builds hives in structures of two, four and even 
more colonies, piled upon one another. On the frontispiece 



MOVABLE-FRAME HIVES. 



139 



to the first edition of this work, Mr. Langstroth gave a rep- 
resentation of a triple hive. The little that can be saved in 
the first cost of such hives, he found to be more than lost 
by the great inconvenience of handling them. 



Movable-Frame Hives. 



284. About one hundred years ago, Huber invented the 
leaf -hive, which enabled him to make his discoveries. It 
consisted of twelve frames, each an inch and a quarter in 
width, which were connected together by hinges, so that 
they could be opened or shut at pleasure, like the leaves 
of a book. 




(Fig. 53.) 
THE HUBER LEAF HIVE. 
(FxomHamet.) 

285. This hive was lately improved upon by several bee- 
keepers in Europe and America, the most noted of whom 
are the late Mr. Quinby, and his son-in-law, L. C. Root, 
author and publisher of one of the most progressive bee- 
books, " Quinby' s New Bee-keeping." This style of hive 



140 THE BEE— HIVES. 

is generally known as the closed-end standing-frame hive. 
Mr. Armstrong of Illinois, seems to be successful with a 
hive almost entirely similar to the Huber leaf-hive in its 
principles. Mr. Heddon, of Michigan, has also patented a 
closed-end frame hive, which is praised by some bee-keepers 
of note. The reader will understand that, in these hives, 
the combs hang separately in frames, which, when joined 
together, make a body, enclosed in an outer covering. Their 
being used by a number of Apiarists, shows that these 
hives have some advantages, the greatest objection to them 
being the difficulty of fitting the frames together, after in- 
spection, without crushing some bees, unless they have been 
previously shaken out. 

286. Several attempts were made, in the first half of 
this century, to invent a practical hanging-frame hive ; that 
is, a hive in which each comb, hanging in a separate frame, 
could be readily taken out and replaced without jarring the 
hive, or removing the other frames. Propokovitsch, in 
Russia, Munn, in England, Debeauvoys, in France, tried 
and failed. At last, in October, 1851, Mr. Langstroth 
invented the top-opening movable-frame hive, now used 
the'world over, in which the combs are attached to movable 
frames so suspended in the hives as to touch neither the 
top, bottom, nor sides ; leaving, between the frames and 
the hive walls, a space of from one-fourth to three-eighths 
of an inch, called bee-space. (Fig. 54.) 

287. By this device the combs can be removed at pleas- 
ure, without any cutting, and speedily transferred to an- 
other hive. Our congenial friend, Prof. A. J. Cook, of 
the Michigan State Agricultural College, and author of 
"The Bee-keeper's Guide," says of it: " It is this hive, 
the greatest Apiarian invention ever made, that has placed 
American Apiculture in advance of that of all other coun- 
tries." And no one knows, better than the revisers of this 
work, that such is the plain truth, as they have watched 



MOVABLE-FRAME HIVES. 



141 



the progress of bee-keeping in Europe, through its French, 
Italian, Swiss, and German bee-papers, for twenty years 
past. 





lllllllllllllllllllMK:.),' . ,;/""■ ; .i.'illlip 
Fig. 54. 

ORIGINAL LANGSTROTH HIVE. 

b,b, front and rear of hive; d,d, pieces forming the rabbets for the frames 
to rest upon; c,c, sides of hive; /, movable cover; u,u,t, movable frame. 



288. Mr. Langstroth, however, modestly disclaimed the 
idea of having attained perfection in his hive. He wrote : 

"Having carefully studied the nature of the honey-bee, for 
many years, and compared my observations with those of writ- 
ers and cultivators who have spent their lives in extending the 



142 THE BEE-HIVES. 

sphere of Apiarian knowledge, I have endeavored to remedy the 
many difficulties with which bee-culture is beset, by adapting 
my invention to the actual habits and wants of the insect. I have 
also tested the merits of this hive by long continued experi- 
ments, made on a large scale, so that I might not, by deceiving 
both myself and others, add another to the useless contrivances 
which have deluded and disgusted a too credulous public. I 
would, however, utterly repudiate all claims to having devised 
even a perfect bee-hive. Perfection belongs only to the works of 
Him, to whose omniscient eye were present all causes and 
effects, with all their relations, when He spake, and from nothing 
formed the Universe. For man to stamp the label of perfection 
upon any work of his own, is to show both his folly and pre- 
sumption." 

289. A short time after the issuing of the Langstroth 
patent, the Baron Von Berlepsch, of Seebach, Thuringia, 
invented frames of a somewhat similar character. Carl T. 
E. Von Siebold, Professor of Zoology and Comparative 
Anatomy, in the University of Munich, thus speaks of these 
frames : 

"As the lateral adhesion of the combs built down from the 
bars frequently rendered their removal difficult, Berlepsch tried 
to avoid this inconvenience, in a very ingenious way, by sus- 
pending in his hives, instead of the bars, small quadrangular 
frames, the vacuity of which the bees fill up with their comb, by 
which the removal and suspension of the combs are greatly fa- 
cilitated, and altogether such a convenient arrangement is given 
to the Dzierzon-hive, that nothing more remains to be desired." (? ? ?) 

Mr. Cheshire (2d vol. page 46) was mistaken in attribut- 
ing to Dzierzon the invention of the frame-hive, for Dzier- 
zon has not even invented, but only perfected the movable- 
comb hive (282-283), having always, to this day, been 
opposed to frames. So the German hive is known as the 
Berlepsch hive. 

290. For years, both of these inventions shared equally 
the attention of bee-keepers in Europe. Berlepsch' s hive 
is used principally in Germany, Italy, and part of Switzer- 
land; Langstroth's in England, France, and the French- 



MOVABLE-FRAME HIVES. 



H3 



speaking part of Switzerland ; but it is to be noted, that 

hives made on the principle of the Langstroth invention, 

are steadily gaining ground wherever both styles are used.* 

291. And this is not to be wondered at. The Berlepsch 




Fig. 55. 

BERLEPSCH HIVE WITH BACK CUSHION. 

(From the ' ' Illustrierte Bienenzeitung." 

hive opens from the rear, like a cupboard. Two stories 
are used for the brood, and the third for surplus honey. 
This is sometimes separated from the main apartment by 
perforated zinc (467), to exclude the queen, or by a board 

* At the Italian Bee-keepers' Convention, held in Milan, in Septemher 1885, 
several Apiarists exhihited hives of this style, and yet none could be found in 
Italy, sixteen years ago. The first Langstroth hive which appeared in Italy 
was introduced by us, in 1872. 



144 



THE BEE-HIVES. 



with a square hole in the center. The frames are sus- 
pended, in grooves, by the ends of their upper bars, and 
have to be taken out with pincers. 

292. The worst feature of this hive is that, if it is nec- 
essary to reach the last frame, every one of the others has 
to be taken out. There are twenty combs in the brood- 
chamber. It is safe to say, that a hive built on the Lang- 
stroth principle, can be visited five times more rapidly, 
than a hive built on the Berlepsch idea. These inconven- 
iences, coupled with the fact that the brood apartment of 
the Berlepsch hive is divided into two stories, and that the 
surplus apartment cannot be enlarged, ad infinitum, make 
the Berlepsch hive inferior ; and we can safely predict that 
hives with movable ceiling will, some day, be exclusively 
used throughout the world. 




■G&. 



Fig. 56. 

SHOWING SOME OF THE EARLY IMPROVEMENTS OF THE LANGSTROTH 
HIVE, STILL IN USE IN SOME SECTIONS. 

293. The superiority of the Langstroth hive is so evi- 
dent that we were not surprised to read in the Revue In- 
ternationale ft Apiculture, Sept. 1885 : 






Plate 9. 




M. QUINBY, 

Author of '* The Mysteries of Bee-Keeping." 



This writer is mentioned pages 139, 147, 148, 150, 151, 152, 153, 157 
168, 189, 363, 471. 



MOVABLE-FRAME HIVES. 145 

" The question of the mobility of the ceiling was discussed at 
length at the Bee-keepers' Meeting held in Milan, Italy, in 
September 1885. Mr. Cowan and I were unable to conceal from the 
Italian bee-keepers our wonder that it was not solved for them, 
as it has been, for a long time, in the countries of large produc- 
tion. 

"We can predict, and without any fear of mistake, that the 
principles on which the Langstroth hive is based will be ad- 
mitted sooner or later by the most progressive bee-keepers of 
the world."— (Ed. Bertrand.) 

294. The introduction of the Langstroth hive in Italy, 
and especially in Germany, has been hindered, so far, by 
the premature adoption of a standard frame, which " shuts 
the door to progress." — (Ed. Bertrand.) 

295. The success of American bee-culture, in the last 
twenty years, was first attributed, by European bee-keepers, 
to the honey-proclucing power of the country ; but the most 
intelligent Apiarists, who have tried the American methods, 
with the Langstroth hive, now recognize that success is 
principally due to the manipulations that it permits. 

296. Nay, if the student will but refer to the former re- 
vision of this very book (1859), the first words of it will 
show him the progress accomplished since then : 

' ' Practical bee-keeping in this country is in a very de- 
pressed condition, being entirely neglected by the mass of 
those most favorably situated for its pursuit. Notwithstand- 
ing the numerous hives which have been introduced, the 
ravages of the bee-moth have increased, and success is becom- 
ing more and more precarious. While multitudes have 
abandoned the pursuit in disgust, many even of the most 
experienced are beginning to suspect that all the so-called 
' Improved Hives ' are delusions or impostures ; and that 
they must return to the simple box or hollow log, and ' take 
up ' their bees with sulphur in the old-fashioned way." 

297. Mr. Gravenhorst, also a German, invented a mov- 
able-frame hive made of straw. We give a cut of his hive 

10 



146 



THE BEE-HIVES. 



and Apiary, not that they have any practical importance 
for us, but because his system is peculiar. The frames are 
removed from the bottom, so that, in order to open one of 




THE GRAVEXHORST HIVE. 
(From the " Illustrierte Bienenzeitung.") 

these hives, it requires the strength of a strong man to in- 
vert it, especially if it is full of honey. 

The Gravenhorst hive is not intended for ladies. 




Fig. 58. 
OLD STANDARD LANGSTROTH FRAME 



MOVABLE-FRAME HIVES. 



147 



298. Although the movable frame, hanging in the hive, 
by projections of the top bar (figs. 54, 58), as invented by 
Mr. Langstroth, is the style now almost universally adopted, 
there is a great diversity of opinions as to the proper size 
and shape of the frames, and the number, which a hive 
should contain. Hundreds of different sizes are used with 
success, from Maine to California, and from Canada to 
Texas. We herewith give a diagram of the principal frames 



18# 



'quinby" 



UK 



17* 



'SIMPLICITY' 



& 





12 



'AMERICAN" 



Fig. 59. 

DIAGRAM OF PRINCIPAL FRAMES IN USE. 

Figures given are outside dimensions in inches. Suspended frames have 
%-inch supporting arms, or an equal prolongation of top bar. 

in use. The " Simplicity " is almost exactly similar to the 
original Langstroth frame: so much so, in fact, that they 
are interchangeable. This style of frame has been manu- 
factured and sold, by the most prominent dealers, to such 
an extent, that it may be called the Standard Frame of 
America. 

299. The "Hanging Quinby " is the frame preferred by 



148 THE BEE-HIVES. 

the writers. The " Gallup " frame is used with success by 
such practical Apiarists as G-. M. Doolittle and O. Clute, 
author of a charming little novel entitled "The Blessed 
Bees/' under the nom de plume of "John Allen." The 
"American" and "Adair" frames are somewhat in use 
also. The " Closed-End Quinby " (285) is not a hanging 
frame, but it is nevertheless used by such bee-keepers as 
Messrs. L. C. Root, Hetherington, Bingham, etc. 

300. It is evident that profit can be derived from bee- 
culture with almost any style of frame ; but it is certain 
also, that, in every pursuit, some conditions produce better 
effects than others, under the same circumstances. 

In Apiculture, as in everything else, we should try to ob- 
tain the best results with the least labor and expense, and 
these can only be attained by studying the habits of the 
bee, and complying with them, as far as is practicable. 

The combs of the brood-chamber, or main apartment of 
the hive, are used by the bees to raise their young, and to 
store their food for Winter. The size of frames must be 
considered, with reference to this. 

301. We have seen (153) that the queen lays her eggs 
in a circle. In fact, it is necessary that she should do so, 
in order to lose no time in hunting for cells ; else how could 
she lay three thousand eggs, or more, per day? Avery 
shallow frame will break the circle, and compel her to lose 
time. In a comb five inches deep, for instance, and fifteen 
or sixteen inches long, the largest circular area contains 
less than twenty square inches, or five hundred and fifty 
worker-cells on each side. When these are occupied with 
eggs, the queen, while hunting for empty cells, will find 
wood above and below, instead of comb, at every half turn, 
and will lose not only time, but eggs ; for, in the busy sea- 
son, her eggs have to drop, like mature fruit, if not laid in 
the cells. Loss of eggs is loss of bees; loss of bees at the 
proper time is loss of honey. 



MOVABLE-FRAME HIVES. 



149 



302. A two-story shallow brood-chamber is objection- 
able for the same reason. Besides, the bees which 
cover the brood and keep it warm, must also keep warm 
the lower bar of the top frame, the upper bar of the lower 
frame, and the space between the two, without deriving any 
benefit from such an arrangement. This division of the 
brood-combs into two shallow stories, is one of the causes, 
which prevent the bee-keepers of Germany from raising as 
many bees, in their hives, as we do here in the ordinary 
Langstroth hives. This disadvantage was so evident that 
the bee-keepers of Switzerland, who had adopted, as a 
standard, the Berlepsch hive (fig. 55), decided to replace 
the double story by a single one of the same dimension, as 
the Italian bee-keepers had done before, but for half the 
hive only. 

G A 




DIAGRAMS OF GALLUP AND LANGSTKOTH HIVES. 
(From the "A. B. C. of Bee- Culture.") 

A small frame like the Gallup (fig. 59), presents another 
objection, the cluster being divided among a greater num- 
ber of frames. 



"For Winter, it is evident that the sides of the clusters 

A. B. and C. D. (fig. 60) are better protected than the ends G-. H. 
and E. F., and also that the long frames protect the center of the 
brood-nest much better than the short ones." — (A. I. Boot, "A. 

B. C") 

Even a cross-bar through a frame (fig. 54) will hinder 
the laying of the queen, so that brood will often be raised 
only on one side of it. Any one can easily try this. 



150 THE BEE-HIVES. 

303. From the foregoing, it appears that a square frame 
is the best for breeding. But square frames are objection- 
able. If they are small, they do not have enough space in 
each frame for Winter supplies, above or behind the brood. 
If they are large, they are unhandy, and their depth makes 
them difficult to take out without crushing bees. We have 
used some sixty hives, American frames, 12 by 12, for 
eighteen years or more, and this is our greatest objection to 
them. 

304. A deeper frame is still more objectionable for the 
same reason,* and because the surplus cases on top are too 
remote from the brood. (278.) In early Spring, the bees 
have more difficulty in keeping the lower end of such frames 
warm, as the heat always rises, and a part of it is wasted, 
warming up the stores, which in this hive are all above the 
brood. In hot weather, the combs are also more apt to 
break down from heat and weight combined. Such a hive 
is deficient in top-surface for the storing of honey in boxes. 

305. It is thus evident, that Mr. Langstroth and Mr. 
Quinbyf were right in using frames of greater length than 
depth, especially as these frames allow of more surplus 
room above the brood, a matter of some importance. 

306. But we must beware of excess in anything. A 

* The deeper the frames, the more difficult it is to make them hang true on 
the rabbets, and the greater the difficulty of handling them without crushing 
the bees or breaking the combs. 

t The late Mr. M. Quinby, of St. Johnsville, New York, in calling my 
attention to some stocks, which he had purchased in box hives of this shape, 
informed me that bees wintered in them about as well as in tall hives, the bees 
drawing back among their stores in cold weather, just as in tall hives they 
draw up among them. My hive, as at first constructed, was fourteen and one- 
eighth inches from front to rear, eighteen and one-eighth inches from side to 
side, and nine inches deep, holding twelve frames. After Mr. Quinby called 
my attention to the wintering of bees in his long box-hives, I constructed one 
that measured twenty-four inches from front to rear, twelve inches from side 
to side, and ten inches deep, holding eight frames. I have since preferred to 
make my hives eighteen and one-eighth inches from front to rear, fourteen and 
one-eighth inches from side to side, and ten inches deep. Mr. Quinby pre- 
ferred to make my movable frames longer and deeper.— Ii. L. L. 



MOVABLE-FRAME HIVES. 151 

shallow frame has too little honey above the cluster in 
Winter, and in long cold Winters, like that of 1884-5, a 
great many bees die for want of food above them, in hives 
containing plenty of honey (630), the combs, back of the 
cluster, being too cold. 

The Langstroth-Simplicity frame is long enough, but 
hardly deep enough. The Quinby frame is deep enough, 
but would be better if a little shorter. 

307. We have used on a large scale Quinby, American 
and Standard Langstroth-sized frames for years, and have 
obtained better results from the Quinby, both for wintering 
out of doors, and for honey producing. Yet, the Lang- 
stroth-Simplicity being the standard frame of America, we 
would hesitate to advise any Apiarist to change from this 
size ; knowing, by practical experience, how annoying it is, 
not to have all frames and all hives in one Apiary uniform 
in size. 

But we would counsel beginners to use the Quinby size, 
— especially if they intend to winter out-of-doors, — or at 
least to use a frame as long as the standard Langstroth and 
as deep as the Quinby. 

308. The number of frames to be used in a hive depends 
on their size ; for we should manage our bees, as we do our 
other domestic animals, and give them as much space as is 
necessary to obtain the best results. What would we think 
of a farmer who would build a barn without first consider- 
ing the number of animals and the amount of feed which 
he intended to shelter in it ? 

309. Many hives cannot hold one-quarter of the bees, 
comb, and honey which, in a good season, may be found in 
large ones ; while their owners wonder that they obtain so 
little profit from their bees. A good swarm of bees, put, 
in a good season, into a diminutive hive, may be compared 
to a powerful team of horses harnessed to a baby wagon, or 
a noble fall of water wasted in turning a petty water-wheel. 



152 THE BEE-HIVES. 

As the harvest of honey is always in proportion to the 
number of bees in the hive, and as a large colony requires 
no more labor from the Apiarist than a small one, the hive 
should afford the queen sufficient space to deposit all the 
eggs, which she is able to lay* during twenty-one days, the 
average time for an egg to be transformed into a worker. 
Besides, it should contain a certain amount of food, honey 
and pollen. 

310. We have seen before (97) that a good queen can 
lay 3,500 eggs per day in the good season, so that 73,500 
cells may be occupied with brood at one time. If we add 
to this number about 20,000 cells for the provisions needed 
in the breeding season, we have about 94,000 cells as the 
number required for a strong colony. As every square inch 
of comb contains about 55 cells (217), 27 to 28 on each 
side, the combs of a hive should measure over 1,700 square 
inches. This space must, of course, allow of contraction, 
according to the needs of the colony, by what is called mov- 
able division boards. (349.) 

311. If the reader will refer to the dimensions of frames 
given (298), he will ascertain that as a Quinby frame 
measures 189 square inches inside, a hive should contain at 
least 9 of these frames. 

As the Standard Langstroth-Simplicity frame measures 
about 149 square inches, the hive must contain 12 frames. 
The American frames must number 13, and the Gallup 14. 

312. We know that many Apiarists objectf to these fig- 
ures, because they succeed, and harvest good crops, with 

* It is un questionable that the quality of a queen depends on the quantity 
of eggs that she is able to lay. Then why limit her, by using hives so narrow 
that she cannot develop her fertility? 

t It is perhaps necessary to say here, that we have found more opposition on 
this subject than on any other, especially in the bee-papers. But we take this 
opportunity of again energetically asserting that our preference for large hives 
is based on a successful practice of more than twenty years, with several hun- 
dred colonies in different sized hives, while our opponents could bring forward 
nothing but their preconceived ideas. 




AN APIARY 1 



Plate 10. 




GERMANY. 



MOVABLE-FRAME HIVES. 153 

smaller hives. But figures, based on facts, cannot lie. 
Smaller hives will do only in localities, where late Springs 
and short honey crops make it impossible for the queen to 
lay to the utmost of her capacity, before the time when 
her bees would be useful. 

813. It is only by testing different sizes of hives and 
frames side by side, for years, on a large scale, and with 
the same management, as we have done, that the compari- 
son can be made serviceable. Our experiments prove also 
that small frames impede the laying of the queen. The 
brood- chamber of a large hive can easily be reduced in size, 
if need be; but a small hive cannot be enlarged at will, ex- 
cept by the addition of upper stories, which should properly 
be devoted to the storing of honey. 

314. In addition to the disadvantages of small frames 
and small hives already enumerated, another — and the 
greatest of all — is the excess of natural swarming which 
they cause. The leading advocates of small hives, some of 
whom are large honey producers, invariably acknowledge 
that they have too much natural swarming; nor is it to be 
wondered at, since swarming is mainly caused by the lack 
of breeding room for the queen. (406.) 

315. The main criterion of a good farmer, is the care 
that he takes to improve his stock, by selecting the best an- 
imals as reproducers. If we use hives so narrow that we 
cannot discern which are our most prolific queens, and that 
they incite natural swarming, we are unable to improve our 
bees by selection. (452, 511.) 

316. The distance, between frames from center to 
center, can be varied, as we have seen before (214), from 
If inches to 1£, in the breeding apartment, of which we are 
now treating. In the surplus cases, it may be made much 
greater. 

317. The distance of 1| inches, advised by Mr. Quinby, 
is preferable two for reasons : 



154 



THE BEE— HIYES. 



1st, It facilitates the taking out of the combs, giving a 
little more room to handle them, and thus aids in inter- 
changing combs, which may have slight irregularities ; when 
such changes are necessary to help weak colonies with 
brood or honey from stronger ones. 

2nd, It gives more room between brood-combs for the 
bees to cluster in Winter, and a greater thickness of honey 
above them, thereby placing the bees in better condition 
for Winter. 

318. The frames must be properly distanced in the hive, 
and the combs must be built straight in them ; for a mov- 
able-frame hive, with crooked combs, is worse than a hive 
without any frames. 

319. The building of straight combs in the frames was 
formerly tolerably secured by the use of a triangular 
wooden guide fastened to the underside of the top bar of 
the frame, and which the bees follow in most instances. 
Something of this kind was mentioned by Delia Rocca as 
early as 1790. (" Traite Complet sur les Abeilles.") 




Fig. 61. 

The figure 61 shows the form of a metallic stamp, 
invented by Mr. Mehring, of Bavaria, Germany, for print- 
ing or stamping the shape of the combs upon the under side 
of the top bar of the frames. After the outlines were made 
he rubbed melted wax over them, and scraped off all 
that did not sink into the depressions. Mr. Mehring rep- 
resented this device as enabling him to dispense with guide 
combs, the bees appearing to be delighted to have their 
work thus accurately sketched out for them.* In practice it 

* This invention should not be confused with that of comb-foundation, made 
a few years later by the same distinguished Apiarist . (677) 



MOVABLE-FRAME HIVES. 155 

was found to be inferior to the triangular comb guides. 
Pieces of worker-comb, glued to the under side of the 
top bar with melted wax, were used successfully. But the 
introduction of comb-foundation (674) has finally given us 
the means of securing straight combs at all times, and it may 
be used, for this purpose, in such narrow strips, that its 
cost cannot be an objection. 

320. Standard L. Movable Frame. — Top bar, 19 J 
long x i wide x f thick. In each end a notch -^-Xl^e- is 
made in the thickness of it, leaving a projecting or support- 
ing shoulder which is to rest in a rabbet in the upper ends 
of the hive, and by which the frame is suspended (fig. 54). 
Ends or vertical pieces : two pieces 8| long X i wide X -f$ 
thick. Bottom bar 16 1 long x I wide X I. We will call 
the attention of manufacturers to the fact, that this makes 
a much stronger frame than the former style, given in pre- 
vious editions, and preserves the exact outside measure- 
ments. The ends, or vertical pieces, are nailed both ways 
to the top bar (fig. 71), and the bottom bar is nailed inside 
of them, instead of under them as formerly. 

321. We must not forget that these bottom bars some- 
times have to support the weight of heavy combs, as in 
transferring (574), and that the bees may glue them fast 
to lumps, which happen to be on the bottom board. Hence 
the necessity of having them nailed, so that they will not 
pull out.* 

All the parts of the movable frames should be cut out by 
circular saws, and the measurement should be exact, so that 
the frames when nailed together may be square. If they are 
not strong and perfectly square, the proper working of the 
hive will be greatly interfered with. 

322. The under side of the top bar may be cut to a tri- 

* As a rule, manufacturers make the top bar of the frames too weak; some 
have remedied this by excessive wiring, and a tin brace in the center. Such 
contrivances are costly and worse than useless . 



156 



THE BEE-HIVES. 



angular edge, but where comb foundation is used, the flat 
top bar will be found much better (693). Above all, the 
outside measurements of the frame must be carefully pre- 
served. 

323. The width of the top bar has something to do with 
the amount of bridges and brace combs (397), built by 
the bees, between the brood-chamber and the upper stories. 
A wide top bar, leaving but a narrow space for passage 
above, will almost altogether prevent the building of bridges, 
but it has other disadvantages that have rendered it unpop- 
ular, although some bee-keepers of note — Col. Camm of 
Illinois, among others — use it. In producing extracted 
honey (749) these bridges and brace combs do not annoy 
much. 

324. L. Simplicity Frame (fig. 59). — This frame has 
been made and sold so largely by A. I. Root, and other 
dealers, that it is established now. The length of the top 
bar and the height of the frame are the same as those of the 
Standard L. Frame, the frame itself being one-fourth inch 
longer outside. They are sometimes made with metal cor- 
ners invented by A. I. Root (fig. 62). 




Fig. 62. 
METAL CORNER AND ITS POSITION IN THE HIVE. 

The engraving is full size. The % board B is supposed to he the end of 
the hive. A is a section of the metal rabbet, and C is the corner. E is 
the space between the hive and the frame ; F is the beveled edge to receive 
the upper story.— ("A. B. C. of Bee-Culture.") 

325. These tin corners have the advantage of making 
the frames very strong ; and as the tin shoulder rests by a 



MOVABLE-FRAME HIVES. 



157 



"knife edge," C, on another tin edge, at right angles with 
it, A., nailed in the rabbet of the hive, the bees cannot 
glue the frames fast. But these frames have the dis- 
advantage of getting out of place easily, too easily in fact, 
and their sharp edges make them very inconvenient to 
handle. 

326. For the L. Quinby suspended frame, see diagram 
(fig. 68). This frame is one-fourth inch deeper than that 
originally given by Mr. Quinby in his ' ' Mysteries of Bee- 
keeping." Mr. Quinby had too much space in the hive, 
under the frame. 

327. It is necessary that the hive should always slant 
forward, toward the entrance, when occupied by bees, to 
facilitate the carrying out of dead bees, and other useless 
substances ; to aid the colony in protecting itself against 
robbers, to carry off moisture, and prevent rain from beat- 
ing into the hive. 

328. For this, and other reasons, the combs should run 
from front to rear, — so as 
to hang perpendicularly 
— and not from side to side 
as they do in the Berlepsch 
hive. 

329. The Langstroth 
hive, from the simple form 
given in fig. 54, was im- 
proved upon in many dif- 
ferent ways. The Standard 
Langstroth hive has been, 
for a long time (fig. 63), 
a hive with portico, 
honey-board, permanent 
bottom-board, and ten 
frames. 

330. In this hive, the " observing-glass" in the rear, 




158 



THE BEE— HIVES. 



was first discarded, and replaced by a board, making the 
hive more simple and cheaper. The glass in the rear is of 
no use, in practical bee-keeping, and for experimenting, the 
observing hives such as described (375), with only one 
comb, and both sides of glass, are to be preferred (fig. 80). 

331. The movable honey-board, between the brood- 
chamber and the upper stories, has been also discarded of 
late years, the great objection to honey-boards being that 
the bees glue them, and build small pieces of comb or 
bridges, in the space between them and the frames ; the jar 
of their breaking, when the honey-board is removed, anger- 
ing the bees. 

332. The permanent bottom-board has lost favor with the 
great majority of bee-keepers, 
and is now replaced by mov- 
able bottom-boards adjustable 
at will. The Van Deusen hive- 
clamp (fig. 64), is used by 
many Apiarists for fastening 
movable bottoms or additional 
stories. We have discarded the 

permanent bottom-board, owing to the difficulty of prompt- 
ly cleaning it of dead bees and rubbish, when removing bees 
from the cellar in Spring, or after a hard winter passed out 
of doors. 

333. In the ventilation of the hive, we should endeavor, as 
far as possible, to meet the necessities of the bees, under all 
the varying circumstances to which they are exposed in our 
uncertain climate, whose severe extremes of temperature 
forcibly impress upon the bee-keeper, the maxim of Virgil, 

" Utraque vis pariter apibus metuenda." 
" Extremes of heat or cold, alike are hurtful to the bees." 

To be useful to the majority of bee-keepers, artificial 
ventilation must be simple, and not as in Nutt's hive, and 




Fig. 64. 
VAN DEUSEX CLAMP. 



MOVABLE-FRAME HIVES. 



159 



other labored contrivances, so complicated as to require 
almost as close supervision as a hot-bed or green-house. 




Fig. 65. 
HIVE, WITH EXTRACTING SUPERS SET BACK FOR VENTILATION 
IN VERY HOT WEATHER. 

The cap is thrown back to show the straw mat. 

334. With an independent bottom-board, ventilation can 



160 fHE BEE-H1VBS. 

be given to any amount by raising the hive, as in fig. 65, or 
even more. By furnishing ventilation independent of the 
entrance, above the brood-chamber, or between the differ- 
ent surplus apartments, if necessary, we improve upon the 
method which bees, in a state of nature, are compelled to 
adopt, when the openings in their hollow trees are so small, 
that they must employ, in hot weather, a larger force in ven- 
tilation, than would otherwise be necessary. 

335. The bees, finding their home more pleasant, will 
cease to cluster on the outside, as long as there will be 
honey to gather, and room to store it in. 

336. On the other hand, by the use of movable blocks, 
the entrance may be kept so small, in cool weather, that 
only a single bee can go in at once, or it may be entirely 
closed. 

While sufficient airing must be given, the supply 
should be controlled, so as not to injure the brood by ad- 
mitting too strong a current of chilly air. In the chapter 
on wintering bees, directions are given for ventilating the 
hives in cold weather, so as to carry off all superfluous 
moisture. (636.) 

337. For the benefit of beginners, it may be necessary 
to add, that the bees will glue up with propolis (236), and 
sooner or later entirely close any ventilating holes through 
which they cannot pass Hence air holes, covered with wire 
cloth, miss their purpose altogether. In the same manner, 
and with a great deal of labor, bees will try to close 
any upper entrances, such as that of figs. 65 and 54d, if 
these remain open, when not needed for the welfare of the 
colony. 

338. The portico of the Langstroth hive has advantages, 
and disadvantages, which about balance one another. Its 
advantages are, that it shelters the bees from rain in Sum- 
mer, and from cold and snow in Winter. Its disadvantages 
are, that it sometimes harbors enemies of bees, moths, spi- 



MOVABLE-FRAME HIVES. 



161 



ders, etc., etc., and sometimes helps to hide the queen from 
the Apiarist's diligent search. It hinders the bee-keeper 
when he wants to watch closely the sport of bees before the 
entrance. 




DOUBLE-STORY LANGSTROTH " SIMPLICITY, ' WITH PORTICO 



339. When the portico-hive is used, two entrance blocks 
are provided, as per accompanying diagram. By changing 




fc 



v, 



Fig. 67. 

ENTRANCE BLOCKS. 

a, hive closed; b, c, d, e,f, gradually enlarged openings. 



11 



162 THE BEE-HIVES. 

the position of these blocks on the alighting-board (see fig. 
67, in which some of the positions are shown), the size of 
the entrance to the hive may be varied in a great many ways, 
and the bees always directed to it by the shape of the block, 
without any loss of time in searching for it. 



The Hive We Prefer. 



340. The diagram we give (fig. 68), of the hive we pre- 
fer to all others, can be taken as a pattern for any other 
size, by changing the size of the pieces and retaining only 
the exact distances between the frames and the body, and 
the height of the entrance. Its details can be varied ad 
infinitum. It can hold eleven frames, but generally we use 
only nine frames and two contracting, or division-boards, 
or ten frames and one division-board. (349.) 

This hive, in the dimensions given, is not a new, untried 
pattern. We have used several hundreds of them for years, 
with the best of success. It is used extensively by several 
large producers. 

341. In consequence of our writings in the Swiss and 
French bee-papers, it was adopted, under the name of the 
Quinby-Dadant hive, by several progressive bee-keepers on 
the other side of the Atlantic, where it gets new partisans 
every year. 

The publisher of the Revue Internationale d' Apiculture, 
Mr. Ed. Bertrand, in the number of October 1887, writes : 

"These wide hives, several bee-keepers find that they are 
too small ; for some have increased them to thirteen frames in- 
stead of eleven, and I have seen such large hives, last Summer, 
filled with bees and honey, besides two upper stories of thirteen 
half-frames each, the whole containing 120 quarts, all occupied 
by the daughters of the same queen." 

In the same number, a German bee-keeper, Mr. Chas. 



MOVABLE-FRAME HIVES. 



163 



Regnier, of Sarrelouis, gives the result of a comparison 
of the Standard German (289) with these hives. He 




Fig. 68. 
DIAGRAM OF OUR HIVE. 

A A , cross-pieces to support the bottom, 18x2x4. B, bottom, 25xl7Kx%. 
C, apron, 10xl7>£x%. DD, front and rear of the hive, 16^xl2J4x%. E, 
entrance, 8x%. F, double board nailed at the rear, 17Kxl3x%. GG, square 
slats to support the cover. H, lath, }£xl% to widen the top edge of the 
front board. /, top bar of the frame, 20Mx%x%. JJJJ, rabbets X wide 
x% high, dug in front and rear boards, and famished with sheets of iron 
% inches wide, projecting % of an inch, on which the frame-shoulders are 
supported. If the grooves are not provided with the sheets of iron, their 
size should be )$x% . KKKK, show how the uprights NN of the frames 
are nailed to the top bar. M, bottom bar of the frame, 17%x}£x%. NN, 
sides of the Irame, ll^x5-16x% . PP, front and rear of the cap, 18>£x9x% . 
RR, front and rear of the surplus-box, 16>£x6%x%. T, empty space on 
top of the surplus-box, 1%. U, top bar of the surplus-frame, same as 
top-bar I. V, bottom bar of the surplus frames, same as M. YY, sides 
of the surplus frames, 6xMx%. 

The space between M and B is about K inch; between DN, ND, VI, RY, 
YR, should be % of an inch. Hives of every size can be constructed on 
this diagram, with the only caution to preserve the spaces of the width 
indicated. 



164 



THE BEE-HIVES. 



writes that the crop of his German averaged about twenty- 
one pounds, while his Dadant hives averaged about forty- 
eight pounds, adding that, at the start, his German were 
full of combs, while the Dadant had several combs to build. 




(Fig. 69.) 
a, front of the hive; b, slanting board; c, movable block; d, cap; c, straw 
mat; /, enamel cloth; g, frames with combs. 

342. Its movable bottom board (fig. 69), is adjusted or 
encased in the body of the main hive, on all sides but the 
front, to shed the rain and better protect the colon}- against 
ants and moths. It projects forward three inches, at least, 



MOVABLE-FRAME HIVES. 



165 



to support an adjustable entrance-block. Some Apiarists 
use a tin slide, instead of an entrance-block. We object to 
it, because, if glued by bees it may be bent in handling, and 
if it is mislaid, it cannot always be promptly replaced ; 
while any square wooden-block can take the place of the 
entrance-block, if necessary. 




Fig. 70. 
HIVE, SETTING FLAT ON THE BOTTOM. 

343. The apron, or slanting-board, helps overladen 
workers to reach the entrance, when they have fallen to the 
ground. The blocks that support the bottom, may be made 
of unequal height, so as to give the hive the proper forward 
slant, on level ground. If the grain of the lumber in the 
bottom-board runs from front to rear, it will shed water 



166 



THE BEE-HIVES. 



more readily, and rot less. If the bottom is nailed on the 
cross-blocks, it will not be in danger of warping. 

Our Swiss friends make the bottom-board with the grain 
running from side to side. They say that in this way 
they can make it fit exactly in the lower rabbet of the hive, 
without swelling or shrinking. They also make the apron, 
with hinges fastened on the bottom-board, and in snowy or 
cold weather, they raise it and lean it against the hive, to 
protect the entrance. 

344. The adjustable bottom board is convenient in many 
instances. If in taking the bees from a winter repositor}^, 
it is found wet and mould}' - , you can at once exchange it for 
a dry one, and wipe the wet board at leisure. Or, if a 
comb breaks down in Summer, by weight and heat, the 
hive can be lifted off its bottom, and placed on a clean 
stand, so that the leaking honey and broken combs can be 
instantly removed, and robbing or daubing of bees avoided. 
Moreover, the bottom-board is the first part of the hive to 
decay, and a hive-body and cover will usually outlast two 
bottom-boards. The movable bottom allowing the raising 
of the hive for ventilation, in extremely hot weather, en- 
ables us also to discard the back ventilator, of the old hive 
(fig. 63.) 

345. The body of the hive is made double on the back, 
which should always be the North side of the hive. (567.) 
This, with the division-board inside, on the West, shelters 

the colony more efficiently than a 
single board against the cold North- 
West winds of Winter. If the bees 
are to be wintered indoors, the 
double back may be dispensed with. 
A more simple form of body, setting 
flat on the bottom, as in fig. 70, can 
Fig. 7i. also be made. 

The rabbet in which the frames hang, is made with a 




MOVABLE-FRAME HIVES. 



167 



' ( fi g- 71 )> sheet-iron shoulder, supporting the frame, similar 
to Root's tin edge. This can be dispensed with altogether, 
but in such cases, the rabbet should be only deep enough 
for the frame to hang as represented in fig. 54. The plain 




Fig. 72. 
SHOWING HOW THE SPACING WIRE IS FIXED. 

wooden rabbet is objectionable, because the bees glue the 
frame shoulders with propolis. Yet we use it in our hives 
almost altogether, because of the difficulty of fitting the 
division-board closely otherwise. 



168 



THE BEE-HIVES. 



346. In any style of hanging-frame hives, it is indispen- 
sable for the frames to be so suspended, that a bee can pass 
between them and the body, bottom, and upper story, to 
prevent the gluing of them with propolis. (See bee-space, 
286.) 

In our hives, we give only one-eighth of an inch of space, 
above the frames, below the top edge of the hive, ancf give 
one-fourth inch under the frames of the upper-story, which 
preserves the three-eighths bee-space, between each story 
(286). We found, in practice, that there was danger of 
crushing bees, in handling the upper stories, when they 
were made so that the frames were flush with their lower 
edge. 




(Fig. 73.) 
SHOWING THE TOOL USED TO BEND THE WIRE BRACES. 



347. The Spaci7ig-ivire, an improvement on Quinby's 
wire brace, to space the frames at the bottom, is found very 
convenient in hives as deep as this. It is also useful in in- 
dicating to novices the number of frames to be placed in 




Fig. 74. 
SHOWING HOW THE WIRE IS REMOVED. 



MOVABLE-FRAME HIVES. 169 

the hive. Even a practical bee-keeper will sometimes make 
the mistake of putting eleven or thirteen frames, in a hive 
that should hold twelve. With this wire, mistakes are im- 
possible, as they will at once be detected. Besides, if the 
hive has to be transported some distance, it keeps the 
frames from jarring. Its cost is insignificant. Some Swiss 
Apiarists use two of these, one in each end. 

348. The entrance should not be less than five-sixteenths, 
or more than three-eighths of an inch in depth, in order to 
give easy passage to the bees, and at the same time, keep 
out mice. Round holes are objectionable. Each hive is 
furnished with an entrance-block, somewhat heavy, and cut 
as in fig 69, to reduce, or close the entrance, according to 
the emergencies. 

349. The division board, also called contractor or dummy, 

is an indispensable 
feature of all good 
hives. With its help, 
the hive may be ad- 
justed to the size of 
the weakest swarm, 
and in Winter, the 

Fi °- 75 - space behind it can 

DIVISIOX BOARD. , „-.. , ... 

be filled with warm 
and absorbing material (636). The constant use of a 
division board, even in the strongest colonies, renders the 
handling of combs much easier. All Apiarists know that 
the first comb is the hardest to remove. By removing the 
board first, the combs are at once free and can be easily 
taken out. 

350. This board is made of the same depth as the- 
frames, with a similar top-bar. Some Apiarists use a di- 
vision-board the full depth of the hive, but in moving it, 
bees are crushed under it, and if any bees happen to be on 
the outside of it, they cannot escape, and die there. On 




170 THE BEE-HIVES. 

the other hand, this bee-passage is not objectionable, since 
heat, having a tendency to rise, does not escape through it. 
The board is made one-fourth inch shorter than the inside 
of the hive, and a strip of oil- cloth or enamel cloth, one and 
a half inches wide, is tacked on, to fill the spaces at each 
end. In this way, the board fits well against the ends, and 
is never glued so as to make it difficult to remove. A small 
half-round pine-strip, laid against the end of the board, 
while tacking on the cloth, and pulled out afterwards, helps 
to tack the cloth properly. To prevent the bees from tear- 
ing or gnawing the edge of the cloth, some Apiarists nail a 
small strip of tin over it. 

351. In the diagram (fig. 68), the reader will notice the 
strip H, used to widen the upper surface of the rabbeted 
end of the hive. This wide surface is very convenient, to 
make the cloth and straw-mat fit closely, as they can thus 
be cut a little longer. 

352. The oil-cloth or enamel-cloth, first applied to hive 
purposes by R. Bickford, is used over the brood-frames in 
Spring. It fits closely, concentrates the heat, and can be 

removed without jar or 
effort. When the sur- 
plus arrangement, or 
upper story, is put on, 
this cloth is removed 
and placed at the top. 
(759) All Apiarists, 

Fig - 76 - or nearly all, who have 

heddon's skeleton honey-board. ..-.,, ., , ,, , 

tried the oil- cloth and 

honey-board simultaneously, have discarded the latter for- 
ever, except in some cases of comb-honey production, when 
a skeleton honey-board (fig. 76) is used between the stories. 
The oil-cloth is sometimes gnawed, or rather pulled to 
pieces by the bees in a few years, but its cost is so small, 
and its use so great, that it is worth while to replace it as 
often as necessary. 




MOVABLE-FRAME HIVES. 171 



Fig. 77. 
FRAME TO MAKE STRAW MATS. 

353. The straw-mat is one of the most useful and neces- 
sary implements of the bee-hive. It is far superior to the 
wooden-mat described by one or two writers. It is flexible 
and porous, warm in Winter, cool in Summer. It may be 
made of rye straw, or of what is called slough-grass, a tough 
and coarse grass growing in marshy places, and abounding on 
the bottoms of the Mississippi Valley. The mat shown in 
fig. 69 is only about one inch thick. Mr. C. F. Muth man- 
ufactures mats much thicker and stronger ; they are equal 
to a cushion. 

In fig. 77 we present to our readers an engraving of a 
frame, for making these mats. They are very simple 
in construction. It is well, in making them, to use strong 
twine, soaked in linseed-oil ; for the moisture, which escapes 
from the bees in Winter, would soon rot the string. 

The enamel-cloth is removed before Winter (635), and 
the mat placed immediately over the frames. A good mat 
will last as long as the hive. 



172 



THE BEE-IIIVES. 




Fig. 78. 
blanton's two-story hive. 



354. The upper story or 
cover may be a half-story 
cap, in one piece (fig. 65), or 
in two pieces (fig. 70), or, 
if only full stories are used 
for surplus, it may be a 
shallow cover (fig. 78) , which 
will fit over either the first 
or the second story. We 
prefer the half -story cap, 
which can be readily filled 
with absorbents for Winter, and is adapted to any style of 
supers.* 

355. The caps must fit freely so as to be easily removed. 
They may be made of lighter lumber than the body of the 
hive, to save fatigue to the Apiarist in handling them. The 
top of the hive must be water-tight. Cracks, knots and 
seams should be avoided, or should be thoroughly painted 
with roof-cement. Before putting together the boards 
which form the top of the cap of our hives, we make, along 
both sides of the joints, a rounded groove, three-eighths of 
an inch wide and one-fourth of an inch deep, in which the 
rain-water runs, instead of leaking inside. Mr. McCord of 
Oxford, O., makes the covers of his hives water-tight, by 
covering them with strong muslin, tacked on with a strip 
nailed to the edges, and thoroughly painted. Mr. G. M. 
Doolittle of Borodino, N. Y., and Dr. C. C. Miller, of Ma- 
rengo, 111., both among the leading bee-writers and success- 
ful producers of honey, use tin, painted white, on the tops 
of their hives. The Swiss and French bee-keepers do the 
same. 

356. The hives should always be painted, not only to 
make them last, but to give them a neat appearance. No 



* This term is used by Apiarists to designate any Tipper box placed over the 
main lower hive. 



MOVABLE-FRAME HIVES. 173 

dark colors should be used, as they absorb the sun's heat, 
nor should all the hives be of the same tint (503). If the 
joints are painted when they are put together, they will last 
much longer. Every old Apiarist well knows that the joints 
are the first to decay. 

357. Each hive, in an Apiary, should bear a number, on 
the back of the brood apartment ; and this should be printed 
in black characters, large enough to be seen at a distance. 
In small Apiaries bee-keepers use a slate, on each hive ; but 
in large ones, where many operations are performed, it is 
better to keep a record of the condition of the colonies, 
and of all the operations, in a special book. 

We will add, that a hive which does not furnish a thor- 
ough control over every comb cannot allow of the manipu- 
lations which the bee-keeper's necessities demand. Of such 
hives, the best are those which best unite cheapness and 
simplicity, with protection in Winter, and ready access to the 
spare honey-boxes. 

358. In closing this chapter on hives, we caunot refrain 
from advising the beginners in bee-culture to be very cau- 
tious in buying patent hives. More than eight hundred 
patents on bee-hives and implements have been issued in 
the United States since January, 1873. Not ten of these 
have proved to be of any use to bee-keepers. The mention 
of this fact will suffice to show the small value of these 790 
patents, and the loss incurred by those who have bought 
them, before they were able to judge of their merits. 

Materials for Bee-hives. 

359. The variety of opinions respecting the best mate- 
rials for hives, has been almost as great as on the subject 
of their proper size and shape. Columella* and Virgil rec- 

* Columella, about the middle of the first century of the Christian Era, 
WTote twelve books on husbandry — ' 'Z)e re rustica." 



174 



THE BEE-HTVES. 



ominend the hollowed trunk of the cork tree, than which no 
material would be more admirable if it could only be cheaply 
procured. Straw hives have been used for ages, and are 
warm in Winter and cool in Summer. The difficulty of 
making them take and retain the proper shape for improved 
bee-keeping, is an objection to their use. Hives made of 
wood are, at the present time, fast superseding all others. 
The lighter and more spongy the wood, the poorer will be its 
power of conducting heat, and the warmer the hive in 
Winter and the cooler in Summer. Cedar, bass-wood, 
poplar, tulip-tree, and especially soft pine, afford excellent 
materials for bee-hives. The Apiarist must be governed, 
in his choice of lumber, by the cheapness with which any 
suitable kind can be obtained in his own immediate vicin- 
ity. 

Scholz, a German Apiarist, recommends hives made of 
adobe — in which frames or slats may be used — as cheaply 
constructed, and admirable for Summer and Winter. Such 
structures, however, cannot be moved. But in many parts 
of our country, where both lumber and saw-mills are 
scarce, and where people are accustomed to build adobe 
houses, they might prove desirable. The material is plastic 
clay, mixed with cut straw, waste tow, etc. 

360. To make the movable-frame hives to the best 
advantage, the lumber should be cut out by a circular saw, 
driven by steam, water, or horse-power, or even by foot- 
power. We have used the foot and hand circular-saws 
made by W. F. & J. Barnes, for years, and could not do 
without them in our shops. In buildings where such saws 
are used, the frames may be made from the small 
pieces of lumber, seldom of any use, except for fuel, and 
may be packed almost solid in a box, or in a hive which 
will afterwards serve for a pattern. One frame in such a 
box, properly nailed together, will serve as a guide for the 
rest. The parts of the hive can easily and cheaply be made 



MATERIALS FOR BEE-HIVES. 



175 



by any one who can handle tools, but cannot be profitably 
manufactured to be sent far, unless made where lumber 
is cheap, and the parts closely packed, — in the flat, — to 
be put together after reaching their destination. 

361. If the Apiarist desires minute instructions, on how 
to file his saws and keep them in order, select his lumber, 
and make his hives, with pleasure and profit, let him send 
to A. I. Root, of Medina, Ohio, for his "A. B. C, of Bee- 
Culture." He will be repaid a hundred-fold, by the many 
good points he will find in it. 

362. We here cite, with illustration, his explanation of 
" why boards warp" : 




Frji^gZ 




Fig. 79. 

" Before going further, you are to sort the boards so as to have 
the heart side of the lumber come on the outside of the hive. If 
you look at the end of each board, you can see by the circles of 
growth, which is the heart side, as is shown in the cuts. At B, 
you see a board cut off just at one side of the heart of the tree ; 
at C, near the bark; at A, the heart is in the centre of the board. 
You all know, almost without being told, that boards always 
warp like C ; that is, the heart side becomes convex. The reason 
is connected with the shrinkage of boards in seasoning. When 
a log lies until it is perfectly seasoned, it often checks as in fig. 
2. You will observe that the wood shortens in the direction of 
the circles, and but very little, if any, along the lines that run 
from the bark to the centre. To allow this shrinkage in one 
direction, the log splits or checks in the direction shown. JSTow 
to go back to our boards, you will see that B shrinks more than 
A, because A has the heart of the tree in its' centre ; that C will 
shrink, in seasoning, much more on the bark side, than on the 



176 THE BEE-HIVES. 

heart side ; that this cannot fail to bring the board out of a level; 
and that the heart side will always be convex. You have all 
seen bee-hives, probably, with the corners separated and gaping 
open, while the middle of the board was tight up in place. The 
reason was that the mechanic had put the boards on, wrong side 
out. If the heart side had been outward, the corners of the hive 
would have curled inwardly, and if the middle had been nailed 
securely, the whole hive would have been likely to have close, 
tight joints, even if exposed to the sun, wind, and rain." — ("A. 
B. C. of Bee-Culture," page 103.) 

363. Double-walled hives, chaff hives, and Winter cov- 
ers, will be described in the chapter on "Wintering" (619). 
The upper-stories, half-stories, wide frames, sections, etc., 
for comb, or extracted honey, will be discussed in the chap- 
ter on honey producing (716). 



Ventilation of the Bee-Hive. 

364. If a populous colony is examined on a warm da} r , 
a number of bees may be seen standing upon the alighting- 
board, with their heads turned towards the entrance of the 
hive, their abdomens slightly elevated, and their wings in 
such rapid motion, that they are almost as indistinct as the 
spokes of a wheel, in swift rotation on its axis. A brisk 
current of air may be felt proceeding from the hive ; and if 
a small piece of down be suspended at its entrance, by a 
thread, it will be drawn out from one part, and drawn in at 
another. Why are these bees so deeply absorbed in their 
fanning occupation, that they pay no attention to the busy 
numbers constantly crowding in and out of the hive ? and 
what is the meaning of this double current of air? To Huber, 
we owe the satisfactory explanation of these curious phe- 
nomena. The bees, thus singularly plying their rapid wings, 
are ventilating the hive ; and this double current is caused by 
pure air rushing in, to supply the place of the foul air which 



Plate 11. 




A. I, ROOT ("Novice"), 

Author of "The A. B. C. of Bee Culture;" Editor of "Gleanings 
in Bee Culture." 



This writer is mentioned, pages 61, 62, 92, 93, 95, 149, 156, 167, 175, 176, 272, 

285, 288, 307, 312, 314, 315, 319, 320, 342, 368, 370, 

422, 429, 438, 485, 486. 



VENTILATION OF THE BEE-HIVE. 177 

is forced out. By a series of beautiful experiments, Huber 
ascertained that the air of a crowded hive is almost as pure 
as the surrounding atmosphere. Now, as the entrance to 
such a hive is often very small, the air within cannot be 
renewed, without resort to artificial means. If a lamp is 
put into a close vessel, with only one small orifice, it will 
soon exhaust the oxygen, and cease to burn. If another 
small orifice is made, the same result will follow ; but if a 
current of air is by some device drawn out from one open- 
ing, an equal current will force its way into the other, and 
the lamp will burn until the oil is exhausted. 

365. It is on this principle of maintaining a double cur- 
rent by artificial means, that bees ventilate their crowded 
habitations. A file of ventilating bees stands inside and 
outside of the hive, each with head turned to its entrance, 
and while, by the rapid fanning of their " many twinkling" 
wings, a brisk current of air is blown out of the hive, an 
equal current is drawn in. As this important office demands 
unusual physical exertion, the exhausted laborers are, from 
time to time, relieved by fresh detachments. If the interior 
of the hive permits inspection, many ventilators will be 
found scattered through it, in very hot weather, all busily 
engaged in their laborious employment. If its entrance is 
contracted, speedy accessions will be made to their num- 
bers, both inside and outside of the hive ; and if it is closed 
entirely, the heat and impurity quickly increasing, the 
whole colony will attempt to renew the air by rapidly vi- 
brating their wings, and in a short time, if unrelieved, will 
die of suffocation. 

366. Careful experiments show that pure air is neces- 
sary not only for the respiration of the mature bees, but for 
hatching the eggs, and developing the larvae ; a fine netting 
of air-vessels enveloping the eggs, and the cells of the larvse 
being closed with a covering filied with air-holes (168). 

In Winter, if bees are kept in a dark place, which is 
12 



178 THE BEE-HIVES. 

neither too warm nor too cold, they are almost dormant, 
and require very little air ; but even under such circum- 
stances, they cannot live entirely without it ; and if they are 
excited by atmospheric changes, or in any way disturbed, a 
loud humming may be heard in the interior of their hives, 
and they need almost as much air as in warm weather. 
(621.) 

367. If bees are greatly disturbed, it will be unsafe, es- 
pecially in warm weather, to confine them, unless they have 
a very free admission of air ; and even then, unless it is ad- 
mitted above, as well as below the mass of bees, the venti- 
lators may become clogged with dead bees, and the colony 
perish. Bees under close confinement become excessively 
heated, and their combs are often melted ; if dampness is 
added to the injurious influence of bad air, they become 
diseased ; and large numbers, if not the whole colony, may 
perish from diarrhoea. Is it not under precisely such cir- 
cumstances that cholera and dysentery prove most fatal to 
human beings? the filthy, damp, and unventilated abodes 
of the abject poor, becoming perfect lazar-houses to their 
wretched inmates. 

368. We have several times examined the bees of new 
swarms which were brought to our Apiary, so closely con- 
fined, that they had died of suffocation. In each instance, 
their bodies were distended with a yellow and noisome sub- 
stance, as though they had perished from diarrhoea. A few 
were still alive, and although the colony had been shut up 
only a few hours, the bodies of both the living and the dead 
were filled with this same disgusting fluid, instead of the 
honey they had when they swarmed. 

In a medical point of view, these facts are highly inter- 
esting ; showing as they do, under what circumstances, and 
how speedily, diseases may be produced resembling dysen- 
tery or cholera. 

369. In very hot weather, if thin hives are exposed to 



VENTILATION OF THE BEE-HIVE. 179 

the sun's direct rays, the bees are excessively annoyed by 
the intense heat, and have recourse to the most powerful 
ventilation, not merely to keep the air of the hive pure, but 
to lower its temperature. 

Bees, in such weather, often leave, almost in a body, the 
interior of the hive, and cluster on the outside, not merely 
to escape the close heat within, but to guard their combs 
against the danger of being melted. 

370. Few novices have an adequate idea of the danger 
to heavily laden combs from heat, especially if the cluster 
of bees, outside, happens to obstruct the entrance, by hang- 
ing in front of it. In the Summer of 1877, we have seen 
whole rows of hives, which were exposed to the sun's rays, 
in a large Apiary, "melt down" almost simultaneously, — 
causing a loss of hundreds of dollars, — for lack of sufficient 
ventilation, owing to the clustering of the bees in front of 
the entrance. 

371. After one comb breaks down, the leaking honey 
spreads over the bottom board, runs out of the entrance, 
daubs the bees, and prevents further ventilation ; then the 
rest of the combs fall pell-mell on one another, crushing the 
brood, the queen, and the remaining bees. It is utter de- 
struction. 

372. In very hot weather, the bees are specially careful 
not to cluster on new combs containing sealed honey, which, 
from not being lined with cocoons, and from the extra 
amount of wax used for their covers, melt more readily than 
the breeding-cells. 

Apiarists have noticed that bees often leave their honey- 
cells almost bare, as soon as they are sealed ; but it seems 
to have escaped their observation, that this is absolutely 
necessary in very hot weather. In cool weather, they may 
frequently be found clustered among the sealed honey-combs, 
because there is then no danger of their melting. 

Few things are so well fitted to impress the mind with 



180 THE BEE-HIVES. 

their admirable sagacity, as the truly scientific device by 
which they ventilate their dwellings. In this important mat- 
ter, the bee is immensely in advance of the great mass of 
those who are called rational beings. It has, to be sure, 
no ability to decide, from an elaborate analysis of the chem- 
ical constituents of the atmosphere, how large a proportion 
of oxygen is essential to the support of life, and how rapidly 
the process of breathing converts it into a deadly poison. 
It cannot, like Liebig, demonstrate that God, by setting the 
animal and the vegetable w r orld, the one over against the 
other, has provided that the atmosphere shall, through all 
ages, be as pure as when it first came from His creating 
hand. But shame upon us ! that with all our boasted intel- 
ligence, most of us live as though pure air was of little or 
no importance ; while the bee ventilates with a philosophical 
precision that should put to the blush our criminal neglect. 
373. It is said that ventilation cannot, in one case, be had 
without cost. Can it then be had for nothing, by the indus- 
trious bees? Those ranks of bees, so indefatigably plying 
their busy wings, are not engaged in idle amusement ; nor 
might they, as some shallow utilitarian may imagine, be 
better employed in gathering honey, or superintending some 
other department in the economy of the hive. At great ex- 
pense of time and labor, they are supplying the rest of the 
colony with the pure air so conducive to their health and 
prosperity. What a difference between them and some 
human beings, who, " if they lived in a glass bottle, would 
insist on keeping the cork in! " 

Impure air, one would think, is bad enough ; but all its 
inherent vileness is stimulated to still greater activity by air- 
tight, or rather lung-tight stoves, which can economize fuel 
only by squandering health and endangering life. Not only 
our private houses, bat all our places of public assemblage, 
are either unimproved with any means of ventilation, or to 



VENTILATION OF THE BEE-HIVE. 181 

a great extent, supplied with those so deficient, that they 
only 

"Keep the word of promise to our ear, 
To break it to our hope." 

Men may, to a certain extent, resist the injurious influences 
of foul air ; as their employments usually compel them to live 
more out of doors : but alas, alas ! for the poor women ! In 
the very land where they are treated with such merited de- 
ference and respect, often no provision is made to furnish 
them with that first element of health, cheerfulness, and 
beauty, heaven's pure, fresh air. 



Observing Hives. 

374. For nearly a century, hives have been in use con- 
taining only one comb, inclosed on both sides by glass. 
These hives are darkened by shutters, and, when opened, the 
queen is as much exposed to observation as the other bees. 
Mr. Langstroth has discovered that, with proper precau- 
tions, colonies can be made to work in observing-hives, even 
when exposed continually to the full light of day ; so that 
observations may be made at all times, without interrupting 
by any sudden admission of light, the ordinary operations 
of the bees. In such hives, many intelligent persons from 
various States in the Union have seen the queen-bee depos- 
iting her eggs in the cells, while surrounded by an affection- 
ate circle of her devoted children. They have also witnessed 
with astonishment and delight, all the mysterious steps in 
the process of raising queens from eggs, which with the 
ordinary development would have produced only the com- 
mon bees. Often for more than three months, there has 
not been a day in our Apiary, in which some colonies were 
not engaged in rearing new queens to supply tie place of 
those taken from them ; and we have had the pleasure of 



182 THE BEE-HIVES. 

exhibiting these facts to bee-keepers, who never before felt 
willing to credit them. 

375. An Apiarist may use the box hives a whole 
life- time, and, unless he gains his information from other 
sources, may yet remain ignorant of some of the most im- 
portant principles in the physiology of the honey-bee ; 
while any intelligent cultivator may, with an observing- hive 
and the use of movable-frames, in a single season, verify 
for himself the discoveries which have been made only by 
the accumulated toil of many observers, for more than two 
thousand years. 

"An opportunity of beholding the proceedings of the queen, in 
hives of the old form, is so very rarely afforded, that many Apia- 
rists have passed their lives without enjoying it; and E.6aumur 
himself, even with the assistance of a glass-hive, acknowledges 
that it was many years before he had that pleasure." — (Bevan.) 

Swammerdam, who wrote his wonderful treatise on bees, 
before the invention of observing-hives, was obliged to tear 
hives to pieces in making his investigations ! When we see 
what important results these great geniuses obtained, with 
means so imperfect, if compared with the facilities which 
the veriest tyro now possesses, it ought to teach us a be- 
coming lesson of humility. 

The sentiments of the following extract from Swammer- 
dam, ought to be engraven upon the hearts of all engaged 
in investigating the works of God: 

" I would not have any one think that I say this from a love of 
fault-finding" — he had been criticising some incorrect drawings 
and descriptions — u my sole design is to have the true face and 
disposition of Nature exposed to sight. I wish that others may 
pass the like censure, when due, on my works ; for I doubt not 
that I have made many mistakes, although 1 can, from the heart, 
say, that I have not, in this treatise designed to mislead." 

376. This hive is a simplified form, but Mr. D. F. Sav- 
age suggests a still more simple one, by making the top so 



OBSERVING HIVES. 



183 



narrow as not to conceal any of the bees, and leaving off 
the shutters entirely, to replace them with a dark cloth 
thrown over the hive. But this cloth can be used only when 
the hive is established inside the house. Its main advan- 
tages are to do away with the noise and jar of opening 
the shutters. 





Fig. 80. 
OBSER VING-H I VE . 

(From Alley's "Handy -Book.") 
a, stand; B,CC, movable glass frame: E, moulding under which the 
top of the shutter H slips, to darken the hive, if needed; F, movable top, 
held in place by hooks. The comb of brood and bees is put in, by remov- 
ing the top and one side. 

377. A parlor observing-hive of this form may be con- 
veniently placed in any room in the house ; the alighting- 
board being outside, and the whole arrangement such that 
the bees may be inspected at all hours, day, or night, with- 
out the slightest risk of their stinging. Two such hives 
may be placed before one window, and put up or taken 
down in a few minutes, without cutting or defacing the wood- 
work of the house. 

An observing-hive will prove an unfailing source of pleas- 
ure and instruction ; and those who live in crowded cities, 



184 THE BEE-HIVES. 

may enjoy it to the full, even if condemned to the penance 
of what the poet has so feelingly described as an " endless 
meal of brick." The nimble wings of the agile gatherers 
will quickly waft them above and beyond ' ' the smoky 
chimney-pots ; " and they will bear back to their city homes 
the balmy spoils of many a rustic flower, "blushing unseen," 
in simple loveliness. Might not their pleasant murmurings 
awaken in some the memory of long-forgotten joys, when 
the happy country child listened to their soothing music, 
while intently watching them in the old homestead-garden, 
or roved with them amid pastures and hill-sides, to gather 
the flowers still rejoicing in their " meadow-sweet breath," 
or whispering of the precious perfumes of their forest home ? 

- »' To me more dear, congenial to my heart, 
One native charm than all the gloss of art ; 
Spontaneous joys, where nature has its play, 
The soul adopts and owns their first-born sway ; 
Lightly they frolic o'er the vacant mind, 
Unenvied, unmolested, unconfined, 
But the long pomp, the midnight masquerade, 
With all the freaks of wanton wealth array'd, 
In these, ere tritlers half their wish obtain, 
The toilsome pleasure sickens into pain ; 
And e'en while fashion's brightest arts decoy, 
The heart distrusting asks, if this be joy." 

Goldsmith. 



HANDLING BEES. 185 



CHAPTER V. 



HANDLING BEES. 



The Honey-bee Capable op Being Tamed. 

378. If the bee had not such a formidable weapon both 
of offense and defense, many who now fear it might easily 
be induced to enter upon its cultivation. As the present 
system of management takes the greatest possible liberties 
with this insect, it is important to show how all necessary 
operations may be performed without serious risk of excit- 
ing its anger. 

Many persons are unable to suppress their astonishment, 
when they see an Apiarist, with the help of a little smoke, 
opening hive after hive, removing the combs covered with 
bees, and shaking them off in front of the hives ; forming- 
new swarms, exhibiting the queen, transferring the bees 
with all their stores to another hive ; and in short, dealing 
with them as if they were as harmless as flies. We have 
sometimes been asked, whether the hives we were opening 
had not been subjected to a long course of training ; when 
they contained swarms which had been brought only the day 
before to our Apiary. 

We shall, in this chapter, show that any one favorably 
situated may enjoy the pleasure and profit of a pursuit 
which has been appropriately styled, " the poetry of rural 
economy," without being made too familiar with a sharp 
little weapon, which speedily converts all the poetry into 
sorry prose. 

It must be manifest to every reflecting mind, that the 
Creator intended the bee, as truly as the horse or the cow, 



186 HANDLING BEES. 

for the comfort of man. In the early ages of the world, 
and indeed until quite modern times, honey was almost the 
only natural sweet; and the promise of " a land flowing 
with milk and honey" had once a significance which it is 
difficult for us fully to realize. The honey-bee, therefore, 
was created not merely to store up its delicious nectar for 
its own use, but with certain propensities, without which 
man could no more subject it to his control, than he could 
make a useful beast of burden of a lion or a tiger. 

379. One of the peculiarities which constitutes the foun- 
dation of the present system of management, and indeed of 
the possibility of domesticating at all so irascible an insect, 
has never to our knowledge been clearly stated as a great 
and controlling principle by any one before Mr. Langstroth. 
It may be thus expressed : 

A honey-bee when heavily laden ivith honey never volunteers 
an attack, but acts solely on the defensive.* 

This law of the honeyed tribe is so universal, that a stone 
might as soon be expected to rise into the air, without any 
propelling power, as a bee well filled with honey to offer to 
sting, unless crushed or injured by some direct assault. 
The man who first attempted to hive a swarm (428) of 
bees, must have been agreeably surprised at the ease with 
which he was able to accomplish the feat ; for it is wisely 
ordered that bees, when intending to swarm, should fill their 
honey-bags to their utmost capacity. They are thus so 
peaceful that they can easily be secured by man, besides 
having materials for commencing operations immediately in 
their new habitation, and being in no danger of starving, if 
several stormy days should follow their emigration. 

380. While swarming, bees issue from their hives in the 
most peaceable mood imaginable ; and unless abused allow 
themselves to be treated with the greatest familiarity. The 

* This statement has been contradicted by a high authority , but we persist in 
affirming it, and will adduce several proofs in different passages. 



TIIE HONEY-BEE CAPABLE OF BEING TAMED. 187 

hiving of them might always be conducted without risk, if 
there were not, occasionally, some improvident or unfortu- 
nate ones, who, coming forth without a sufficient amount of 
the soothing supply, are filled instead with the bitterest 
hate against any one daring to meddle with them. Such 
thriftless radicals are always to be dreaded, for they must 
vent their spleen on something, even though they perish in 
the act. (84.) 

If a whole colony, on sallying forth, possessed such a 
ferocious spirit, no one could hive them unless clad in a 
coat of mail, bee-proof ; and not even then, until all the 
windows of his house were closed, his domestic animals be- 
stowed in some place of safety, and sentinels posted at suit- 
able stations, to warn all comers to keep at a safe distance. 
In short, if the propensity to be exceedingly good-natured 
after a hearty meal, had not been given to the bee, it could 
never have been domesticated, and our honey would still be 
procured from the clefts of rocks or the hollows of trees. 
Probably the good nature resulting from a hearty meal is 
not the only cause of the above fact. There is another 
physiological fact connected with it (85). When her 
stomach is empty, a bee can curve her abdomen easily to 
sting. If her honey-sack is full, the rings of the abdomen 
are distended, and she finds more difficulty in taking the 
proper position for stinging. 

381. A second peculiarity, in the nature of bees, gives 
an almost unlimited control over them, and may be ex- 
pressed as follows : 

Bees, when frightened, usually begin to Jill themselves with 
honey from their combs. 

If the Apiarist only succeeds in frightening his little sub- 
jects, he can make them as peaceable as though they were 
incapable of stinging. By the use of a little smoke, the 
largest and most fiery colony may be brought into complete 
subjection. As soon as the smoke is blown among them, 



188 



HANDLING BEES. 



they retreat from before it, raising a subdued or terrified 
note ; and, seeming to imagine that their honey is to be 
taken from them, they cram their honey-bags to their utmost 
capacity. They act either as if aware that only what they 
can lodge in this inside pocket is safe, or, as if expecting to 
be driven away from their stores, they are determined to 
start with a full supply of provisions for the way. The 
same result may be obtained by shutting them up in their 
hive and drumming upon it for a short time, but this latter 
process is only successful with some races of, bees easily 
frightened, like the black bees (559). 

382. The bellows-smokers, in present use, for smoking 
bees and controlling them, are as far superior to the old 
method of blowing; smoke on them with the mouth from a 




Fig. 81. 
BINGHAM BEE-SMOKER. 



Fig. 82. 
MUTH BEE-SMOKER. 



piece of punk or rotten wood, or a bunch of rags, as the 
movable-frame hive is superior to the box hive of old. The 
writer of this, who kept bees in large numbers in several 
Apiaries before the introduction of the practical bellows- 
smoker, has man}^atime felt dizzy from the fatigue of blow- 
ing smoke on the bees. 

Bellows-smokers were used in Europe long ago, but they 
were not practical, as they could not be used with one 
hand. 



THE HONEY-BEE CAPABLE OF BEING TAMED. 189 

Quinby, one of the veterans of progressive Apiculture, 
invented the first bellows-smoker that had the bellows on 
the side of the fire-box, that could stand up and draw like a 
chimney, and that could practically be held with one hand. 
Bingham afterwards greatly improved on this smoker. 
Since then, others have made different styles, all based on 
Quinby' s or on Bingham's ideas. 

The Improved Quinby-Bingham smokers have been 
imitated all over the world, especially in England and 
France, and we are sorry to say, some of these imitations 
have been sold as personal inventions, without any credit 
being given to the real inventors. 

A bee-smoker is indispensable to any Apiarist, and should 
be properly filled, when used, with dry wood, lighted at the 
bottom by a few hot coals. With a good smoker any kind 
of wood may be used. When the bees are located in an or- 
chard, dead limbs of apple- trees, are handiest and will 
make good smoke. Shavings, leaves, rags, can also be used, 
if no wood is at hand. By setting the smoker upright, when 
not held in the hand, so as to create a good draft, and refilling 
it from time to time, a good smoke can be kept up from 
morning till night, if necessary. 

383. Some Apiarists of England have tried several 
liquids, for rubbing on the hands, to pacify the bees. 
Most of these liquids are hydro-carbonous fluids, or volatile 
oils of plants, such as wintergreen, turpentine, bergamot, 
cloves, thyme, etc. Mr. Grimshaw, after divers trials, in- 
vented a compound of several of these oils, to which he 
seems to have added ether and chloroform, if our sense of 
smell does not mislead us. He calls it Apifuge. 

Several Apiarists praise this drug, while others say that 
their bees did not mind it, and sting them as usual ; and 
some complain of blisters on their hands after its use. 
{British Bee- Journal. ) 

Mr. Cowan presented us with a vial of Apifuge, but, 



190 



HANDLING BEES. 



after trying, we cannot see much advantage to be derived 
from its use. 

384. Mr. Raynor advises the use of a carbolized sheet, 
to frighten bees : 

" Make a solution of 3 oz. carbolic acid in a quart of water, 
and preserve for use. Mix H oz. of this solution with 1} oz. of 
glycerine ; put the mixture in a quart of water, shake well before 
using ; steep in the mixture a piece of calico, or cheese cloth, 
sufficiently large to cover the top of the hive, wring out dry and 
spread over the hive as soon as the quilt is removed. 

"You may use the same to drive the bees out of the sections. 
Keep the bottles well corked for future use." — (Rev. G-. Raynor, 
in the British Bee-Journal.) 

The same liquid may be forced among the bees through 
an atomizer. As it evaporates it leaves no bad smell behind. 

385. A neighbor of ours, who is a magnetist, told our 
foreman- Apiarist that bees could be pacified by simply la}'- 




Fig. 83. 
VEIL ABOVE THE HAT. 



BEE-VEILS. 



191 



ing one's hands above the combs while the cloth is care- 
fully removed. We have seen bees withdraw from the 
frames inside the hive, under this laying on of hands ; but 
we are not sure that such magnetism, if there be magnetism 
in it, is sufficient to prevent the bees from stinging. 

386. A bee-veil, although objectionable to some bee- 
keepers, who prefer to handle their bees barefaced, is really 
a necessity in a large Apiary. Timid persons feel safer in 
using it, and even the boldest bee-keepers recognize the 
necessity of wearing one, when colonies become aroused by 
accident. The best veils are sewed to outer-edge of the 
rim of a straw-hat ; with a rubber at their lower extremity, 
to fasten around the neck. The veil can be slipped on and 
off in a twinkling, if necessity requires ; when not in use, it 
is simply folded into the crown of the hat, where it is 
always at hand. 

We keep a number 
of these veil hats in our 
bee-house, for the ac- 
commodation of visit- 
ors, who wish to look 
through the wonders of 
the bee-hive, without 
fear of stings. 

Some veils are made 
removable, with a rub- 
ber at each end ; the up- 
per one being slipped 
over the crown of the 
hat. This veil can be 
taken off at will, and 
carried in the pocket. 

In his " Success In Bee-Culture," Mr. Heddon says: "A 
bee-veil should never be any color but black, as all other 
shades are more or less difficult to see through clearly," and 



Fig. 84. 
VEIL SEWED AROUND REVI OF HAT. 



192 HANDLING BEES. 

we fully agree with him. White veils are most especially 
objectionable. Green is the best color after black. 

387. The hands may be protected by india-rubber 
gloves, such as are now in common use. These gloves, while 
impenetrable to the sting of a bee, do not materially inter- 
fere with the operations of the Apiarist. As soon, however, 
as he acquires confidence and skill, he will much prefer 
to use nothing but the bee-hat, even at the expense of an 
occasional sting on his hands. 

An English Apiarist advises persons using gloves to cut 
the tips of the fingers so as to handle the frames more 
dexterously, and to wash their fingers with some kind of 
Apifuge. 

Stings on the hands usually cause but little suffering or 
swelling, while stings on the face are quite painful ; and the 
grotesque appearance which the swelling often gives to the 
human face, makes it much more desirable to protect the 
head than the hands. 

If the hands are wet with honey, they will seldom be 
stung. 

388. All woolen clothes are more objectionable to bees 
than linen or cotton, for wool resembles the hair of ani- 
mals, being made of it, while linen or cotton resembles the 
twigs and leaves of plants, being made of vegetable fibre. 
Butler says : 

" They use their stings against such things as have outwardly 
some offensive excrement, such as hair or feathers, the touch 
whereof provoketh them to sting. If they alight upon the hair 
of the head or heard, they will sting if they can reach the skin. 
When they are angry their aim is most commonly at the face, 
but the hare hand that is not hairy, they will seldom sting, 
unless they be much offended. "—(^Feminine Monarchy," 1609.) 

389. In handling bees, it is not always necessar} T to 
compel them to fill themselves with honey. With the quiet 
Italians (551), a few puffs of smoke, at the entrance, 



HANDLING BEES. 193 

when opening the hive, and occasionally on the combs, if 
they show any disposition to anger, are quite sufficient to 
keep them down. Some of our best Apiarists often open 
their hives and handle the bees without smoke. It takes 
practice, patience and firmness. 

While the timid, if unprotected, are almost sure to be 
stung, there is something in the fearless movements of a 
skillful operator, that seems to render a colony submissive 
to his will. 

390. Some races, however, like the Cyprian (559), 
cannot be controlled without a cloud of smoke, but they 
promptly retreat before the overpowering argument of a 
good smoker. 

391. Bees can be handled at all times; but they are 
quietest in the middle of the day. At such a time, the old 
bees, which are the Grossest in the colony, are out in the 
field. In cold, cloudy, or stormy weather, they are most irri- 
table, especially if there is a scarcity of honey, as the lurking 
robbers excite the bees. Old bees that come home loaded, 
are not cross, while those going out empty, are easily 
angered. During a plentiful honey flow, when the hives 
are crowded for room, the bees are nearly all full of honey, 
and the colonies can then be handled without smoke (379). 

By our methods you can superintend a large Apiary, 
performing every operation necessary for pleasure or profit, 
without as much risk of being stung, as must frequently be 
incurred in attempting to manage a single hive in the old 
way. 

392. Let all your motions about your hives be gentle and 
slow ; never crush or injure the bees ; acquaint yourself 
fully with the principles of management detailed in this 
treatise, and you will find that you have little more reason 
to dread the sting of a bee, than the horns of a favorite 
cow, or the heels of your faithful horse. 

13 



194 HANDLING BEES. 

Cotton, quoting from Butler, who, in these remarks, fol- 
lows mainly Columella, says : 

393. " Listen to the words of an old writer : — 'If thou wilt 
have the favour of thy hees, that they sting thee not, thou must 
avoid such things as offend them : thou must not be unchaste or 
uncleanly; for impurity and sluttiness (themselves being most 
chaste and neat) they utterly abhor; thou must not come among 
them smelling of sweat, or having a stinking breath, caused 
either through eating of leeks, onions, garlick, and the like, or 
by any other means, the noisonieness whereof is corrected by a 
cup of beer ; thou must not be given to surfeiting or drunken- 
ness ; thou must not come puffing or blowing unto them, neither 
hastily stir among them, nor resolutely defend thyself when they 
seem to threaten thee ; but softly moving thy hand before thy 
face, gently put them by ; and lastly, thou must be no stranger 
unto them. In a word, thou must be chaste, cleanly, sweet, 
sober, quiet, and familiar; so will they love thee, and know thee 
from all others. When nothing hath angered them, one may 
safely walk along by them ; but if he stand still before them in 
the heat of the day, it is a marvel but one or other spying him, 
will have a cast at him.'* 

"Above all, never blow f on them; they will try to sting di- 
rectly, if you do. 

" If you want to catch any of the bees, make a bold sweep at 
them with your hand ; and if you catch them without pressing 
them, they will not sting. I have so caught three or four at a 
time. If you want to do anything to a single bee, catch him ' as 
if you loved him,' between your finger and thumb, where the tail 
joins on to the body, and he cannot hurt you." 

When gorged with honey, they ma}^ be taken up by hand- 
fuls, and suffered to run over the face, and may even have 
their glossy backs gently smoothed as they rest on our per- 
sons ; and all the feats of the celebrated Wildman may be 

* Many persons imagine themselves to be quite safe, if they stand at a con- 
siderable distance from the hives; whereas, cross bees delight to attack those 
whose more distant position makes them a surer mark to their long-sighted 
vision, than persons who are close to their hives. 

t While bees resent the warm breath exhaled slowly from the lungs, we have 
ascertained, that they will run from a blast of cold air blown upon them by 
the mouth of the operator, almost as quickly as from smoke. Before employ- 
ing smoke Mr. Langstroth often used a pair of bellows. 



IGNORANCE OF BEE-KEEPERS. 195 

safely imitated by experts, who, by securing the queen, can 
make the bees hang in large festoons from their chin, with- 
out incurring any risk of being taken by the beard. 

" Such was the spell, which round a Wildman's arm, 
Twin'd in dark wreaths the fascinated swarm ; 
Bright o'er his breast the glittering legions led, 
Or with a living garland hound his head. 
His dextrous hand, with firm yet hurtless hold, 
Could seize the chief, known by her scales of gold, 
Prune 'mid the wondering train her filmy wing, 
Or o'er her folds the silken fetter fling." 

394. The ignorance of most bee-keepers of the almost un- 
limited control which may be peaceably acquired over bees, 
has ever been regarded by the author of this treatise as the 
greatest obstacle to the speedy introduction oj movable-frame 
hives. Such ignorance has led to the invention of costly 
and complicated hives, all the ingenuity and expense lav- 
ished upon which, are known, by the better informed, to be 
as unnecessary as a costly machine for lifting up bread and 
butter, and gently pushing it into the mouth and down the 
throat of an active and healthy child. 

We have before us a small pamphlet, published in Lon- 
don in 1851, describing the construction of the "Bar and 
Frame Hive " of W. A. Munn, Esq. The object of this in- 
vention is to elevate frames, one at a time, into a case with 
glass sides, so that they may be examined without risk of 
annoyance from the bees. Great ingenuity is exhibited by 
the inventor of this very costly and very complicated hive, 
who seems to imagine that smoke " must be injurious both 
to the bees and their brood." 

395. In opening a hive, little danger may be feared 
from the bees that are exposed to the light, unless quick 
motions are made, as they are completely bewildered by 
their sudden exposure, and removal from the hive. 

It is not merely the sudden admission of light, but its 
introduction from an unexpected quarter, that for the time, 



196 HANDLING BEES. 

disarms the hostility of the bees. They appear, for a few 
moments, almost as much confounded as a man would be, 
if, without any warning, the roof and ceiling of his house 
should suddenly be torn from over his head. Before they 
recover from their amazement, they are saluted with a puff 
of smoke, which, by alarming them for the safety of their 
treasures, induces them to snatch whatever they can. In 
the working season, the bees near the top are gorged with 
honej" ; and those coming from below are met in their 
threatening ascent, by a small amount of harmless smoke, 
which excites their fears, but leaves no unpleasant smell 
behind. No genuine lover of bees ought ever to use the sick- 
ening fumes of tobacco. 

396. Heddon says ("Success in Bee-Culture," page 18) : 
' ' I know of but one instance where the use of smoke can do 
harm, and that is in smoking the guards of a colony that is in 
danger of being robbed." (664.) To this important state- 
ment, we would add, that too much smoke to a colony 
already subdued, will drive them from their combs, and 
often cause them to get in the way of the Apiarist. 

But the greatest care should be taken to repress by 
smoke, the first manifestations of anger ; for, as bees com- 
municate their sensations to each other with almost magic 
celerity, while a whole colony will quickly catch the pleased 
or subdued notes uttered by a few, it will often be roused 
to fury by the angry note of. a single bee. When once they 
are thoroughly excited, it will be found very difficult to 
subdue them, and the unfortunate operator, if inexperi- 
enced, will often abandon the attempt in despair. 

It cannot be too deeply impressed upon the beginner, 
that nothing irritates bees more than breathing upon them, 
or jarring their combs. Every motion should be deliberate, 
and no attempt whatever made to strike at them. If in- 
clined to be cross, they will often resent even a quick 



REMOVING FRAMES. 197 

pointing at them with the finger, by darting upon it, and 
leaving their stings behind. 

397. The first thing to be done, after having opened a 
hive and removed the cloth (352), is to remove the divis- 
ion-board (349) from the inside of the hive — to give room 
for handling the frames, — with the help of a common wood 
chisel. Then the frames which have been glued (236) 
fast to the rabbets by the bees, must be very gently pried 
loose ; this may be done without any serious jar, and with- 
out wounding or enraging a single bee. They may be all 
loosened for removal in less than a single minute. 

If there is no division-board (349) in the hive, the Api- 
arist should gently push the third frame from either end of 
the hive, a little nearer to the fourth frame ; and then the 
second as near as he can to the third, to get ample room to 
lift out the end one, without crushing its comb, or injuring 
an}- of the bees. To remove it, he should take hold of its 
two shoulders which rest upon the rabbets, and carefully 
lift it, so as to crush no bees by letting it touch the sides of 
the hive, or the next frame. If it is desired to remove any 
particular frame, room must be gained by moving, in the 
same way, the adjoining ones on each side. As bees usu- 
ally build their combs slightly waving, it will be found 
impossible to remove a frame safely, without making room 
for it in this way. If the combs are built on foundation 
(674), however, the} T will be much easier to remove, as 
they are then perfectly straight. In handling heavy frames 
in hot weather, be careful not to incline them from their 
perpendicular, or the combs will be liable to break from their 
own weight, and fall out of the frames. 

If more combs are to be examined, after lifting out the 
outside frame, set it carefully on end, near the hive, when 
the second one may be easity moved towards the vacant 
space, and lifted out. After examination, put it in the place 
of the one first removed; in the same way, examine the 



198 



HANDLING BEES. 



third, and put it in the place of the second, and so proceed 
until all have been examined. If a division-board is used, 
it will not be necessary to set any of the frames down out- 
side of the hive, as the removal of this board will leave one 
vacant space in the hive. 

If the frames, as they are removed, are put into an empty 
hive, or a comb-bucket, they may be protected from the 
cold, and from robber-bees. 




Fig. 85 
COMB-BUCKET. 

The inexperienced operator, who sees that the bees have 
built small pieces of comb, or bridges (237), between 
the outside of the frames and the sides of the hive, or 
slightly fastened together some parts of their combs, may 
imagine that the frames cannot be removed at all. Such 
slight attachments, however, offer no practical difficulty to 
their removal.* The great point to be gained, is to secure 



* If sufficient room for storing surplus honey is not given to a strong colony. 
in its anxiety to amass as much as possible, it will fill the smallest accessible 
places. If the bees build comb between the tops of the frames and the under 
side of the upper story, it can be easily cut off, and used for wax. If this 
shallow chamber were not used, they would fasten the upper story to the 
frames so tightly, that it would be very difficult to remove it ; and every time 



REMOVING FRAMES. 199 

a single comb on each frame ; and this is effected by the 
use of the triangular comb-guides, or better, by comb-foun- 
dation (674). 

If bees were disposed to fly away from their combs, as 
soon as they are taken out, instead of adhering to them 
with such remarkable tenacity, it would be far more difficult 
to manage them ; but even if their combs, when removed, 
are all arranged in a continued line, the bees, and most es- 
pecially the Italian bees, instead of leaving them, will 
stoutly defend them against the thieving propensities of 
other bees. 

398. In returning the frames, care must be taken not to 
crush the bees between them and the rabbets on which they 
rest ; they should be put in so slowly, that a bee, on feeling 
the slightest pressure, may have a chance to creep from un- 
der them before it is hurt. 

The frames should be returned, as far as possible, in the 
same position, as they were found, with the brood in the 
forward part of the hive, and the honey in the back, for 
bees always live and breed in front of their stores, to more 
easily defend their treasures against intruders. 

In shutting up the hive, the surplus story, if any is there, 
should be carefully slid on, so that any bees which are in 
the way may be pushed before it, instead of being crushed. 
A beginner will find it to his advantage to practice — using 
an empty hive — the directions for opening and shutting 
hives, and lifting out the frames, until confident that he 
fully understands them. If any bees are where they would 
be imprisoned by closing the upper cover, it should be 
propped up a little, until the}' have flown to the entrance of 
the hive, or, they may be brushed away gently. 

it was taken off, they would glue it still faster, so that, at last, it would he 
well nigh impossihle, in getting it off, not to start the frames so as to crush 
the hees between the combs. 



200 HANDLING BEES. 



Mismanagement of Bees. 



399. When a colony of bees is unskillfully dealt with, 
they will "compass about" their assailant with savage 
ferocity; and woe be to him, if they can creep up his 
clothes, or find a single unprotected spot on his person. 

Not the slightest attempt should be made to act on the 
offensive ; for, if a single one is struck at, others will 
avenge the insult ; and if resistance is continued, hundreds, 
and at last, thousands, will join them. The assailed party 
should quickly retreat to the protection of a building, or, 
if none is near, should hide in a clump of bushes, and lie 
perfectly still, with his head covered, until the bees leave 
him. When no bushes are at hand, they will generally 
give over the attack, if he lies still on the grass, with his 
face to the ground. A practical Apiarist, sheltered with a 
veil and armed with a well lighted smoker, will not retreat 
much before the most ferocious swarm of bees. 

Those who are alarmed if a bee enters the house, or ap- 
proaches them in the garden or fields, are ignorant of the 
important fact, that a bee, at a distance from its hive, never 
volunteers an attack. Even if assaulted, they seek onry to 
escape, and never sting, unless they are hurt. 

If they were as easily provoked away from home, as when 
called to defend those sacred precincts, a tithe of the merry 
gambols, in which our domestic animals indulge, would 
speedily bring about them a swarm of infuriated enemies ; 
we should be no longer safe in our quiet rambles among 
the green fields ; and no jocund mower could whet or swing 
his peaceful sc3 T the, unless clad in a dress impervious to 
their stings. The bee, instead of being the friend of man, 
would, like savage wild beasts, provoke his utmost efforts 
for its extermination. 

Let none, however, take encouragement from the con- 



MISMANAGEMENT OF BEKS. 201 

trast between the conduct of bees at home and abroad, to 
reserve all their pleasant ways for other places than the 
domestic roof ; for, towards the members of its own family 
the bee is all kindness and devotion ; and while, among 
human beings, a mother is often treated by her own children 
with disrespect or neglect, among bees she is always waited 
upon with reverence and affection. 

400. Huber has demonstrated, that bees have an ex- 
ceedingly acute sense of smell, and that unpleasant odors 
quickly excite their anger.* Long before his time, Butler 
said, "Their smelling is excellent, whereby, when they fly 
aloft into the air, they will quickly perceive anything under 
them that they like, even though it be covered." They 
have, therefore, a special dislike to those whose habits are 
not neat,f and who bear about them a perfume not in the 

least resembling 

" Sabean odors 
From the spicy shores of Araby the blest." 

Ahorse, when assailed by them, is often killed; as, in- 
stead of running away, like most other animals, it will 
plunge and kick until it falls overpowered. The Apiary 
should be fenced in, ' to prevent horses and cattle from 
molesting the hives. We have known of a horse, which 
happening to be loose in a bee-yard, was attacked by a few 
bees. In trying to defend himself against them by kicking 
and rolling he upset one hive and then another, till tens of 
thousands of bees assailed him, and the poor animal was 

* Strong perfumes, however pleasant to us, are disagreeable to bees; and 
Aristotle observes, that they will sting those scented with them. We have 
known persons ignorant of this fact to be saverely treated by bees. 

f Some persons, however cleanly, are assaulted* by bees as soon as they 
approach their hives. It is related of a distinguished Apiarist that, after a 
severe attack of fever, he was never able to be on good terms with his bees. 
That they can readily perceive the slightest differences in smell, is apparent 
from the fact that any number of bees, fed from a common vessel, will be gen- 
tle towards each other, while they will assail the first strange bee that alights 
on the feeder. 



"202 HANDLING BEES. 

stung to death, before his owner could come to the rescue. 
We were informed by an eye-witness, that although the car- 
cass remained unburied two days, neither dogs, crows, 
buzzards, nor any of the usual scavengers of decaying flesh, 
attempted to feed upon it, so great was the amount of poison 
(79) instilled into it by the revengeful bees. 

401. The sting of a bee (78) upon some persons, pro- 
duces very painful, and even dangerous effects. We have 
often noticed that, while those whose systems are not sen- 
sitive to the venom, are rarely molested by bees, they seem 
to take a malicious pleasure in stinging those upon whom 
their poison produces the most virulent effect. Something 
in the secretions of such persons may both provoke the 
attack and render its consequences more severe. 

The smell of their own poison (87) produces a very irri- 
tating effect upon bees. A small portion of it offered to them 
on a stick, will excite their anger. 

" If you are stung," says old Butler, " or any one in the com- 
pany — yea, though a bee hath stricken but your clothes, espe- 
cially in hot weather — you were best be packing as fast as you 
can, for the other bees, smelling the rank flavor of the poison, 
will come about you as thick as hail." 

Remedies for the Sting of a Bee. 

402. If only a few of the host of cures, so zealously 
advocated, could be made effectual, there would be little 
reason to dread being stung. 

The first thing to be clone after being stung, is to pull — 
or rather push — the sting out of the wound as quickly as 
possible. When torn from the bee, the poison-bag, and all 
the muscles which control the sting, accompany it ; and it 
penetrates deeper and deeper into the flesh, injecting con- 
tinually more and more poison into the wound. If extracted 
at once, it will very rarely produce any serious consequen- 



REMEDIES FOR THE STING OF A BEE. 203 

ces ; but, in extracting it, it should not be taken between 
the fingers. In so doing, most of the poison will be pressed 
into the wound. It mast be rubbed or scraped off by a 
quick motion of the finger-nail, so as to prevent any more 
of the poison of the sack from getting into the flesh. After 
the sting is removed, the utmost care should be taken not 
to irritate the wound by the slightest rubbing. However 
intense the smarting, and the disposition to apply friction 
to the wound, it should never be done, for the moment that 
the blood is put into violent circulation, the poison is 
quickly diffused over a large part of the system, and severe 
pain and swelling may ensue. On the same principle, by 
severe friction, the bite of a mosquito, even after the lapse 
of several days, may be made to swell again. As most of 
the popular remedies are rubbed in, they are worse than 
nothing. 

When the operator is perspiring abundantly, the stings 
are less painful, as some of the poison exudes with the 
sweat. 

If the mouth is applied to the wound, unpleasant conse- 
quences may follow ; for, while the poison of snakes, affect- 
ing only the circulating system, may be swallowed with 
impunity, the poison of the bee acts with great power on 
the organs of digestion. Distressing headaches are often 
produced by it, as any one, who has been stung, or has 
tasted the poison, very well knows. 

403. In our own experience, we have found cold water to 
be the best remedy for a bee-sting. The poison is quickly 
dissolved in it ; and the coldness of the water has also a 
powerful tendency to check inflammation. 

The leaves of plantain, crushed and applied to the 
wound, are a very good substitute, when water cannot at 
once be procured. Bevan recommends the use of spirits of 
hartshorn, and sa}^s that, in cases of severe stinging, its 
internal use is also beneficial. In very serious cases, the 



204 HANDLING BEES. 

ammonia ma}^ be taken, in quantities of from five to twent} T 
drops,— for an adult, less for a child, — in hot tea, with ben- 
eficial results. It causes an increased perspiration, and 
neutralizes the effects of the poison. ("Commentaires 
Therapeutiques," Gubler, Paris, 1874.) 

404. It may be some comfort to novices to know that 
the poison will produce less and less effect upon their 
S3 r stem. Old bee-keepers, like Mithridates, appear almost 
to thrive upon poison itself. When we first became inter- 
ested in bees, a sting was quite a formidable thing, the pain 
being often ver}^ intense, and the wound swelling so as 
sometimes to obstruct our sight. At present, the pain is 
usually slight, and, if the sting is quickly extracted, no 
unpleasant consequences ensue, even if no remedies are 
used. Huish speaks of seeing the bald head of Bonner, a 
celebrated practical Apiarist, covered with stings, which 
seemed to produce upon him no unpleasant effects. The 
Rev. Mr. Kleine advises beginners to allow themselves to 
be stung frequently, assuring them that, in two seasons, 
their system will become accustomed to the poison ! 

An old English Apiarist advises a person who has been 
stung, to catch another bee as speedily as possible, and 
make it sting on the same spot. Even an enthusiastic dis- 
ciple of Huber might hesitate to venture on such a singular 
homoeopathic remedy ; bat, as this Apiarist had stated, 
what we had verified in our own experience, that the oftener 
a person is stung the less he suffers from the venom, the 
waiter determined to make trial of his prescription. Allow- 
ing a sting to remain until it had discharged all of its poison, 
he compelled another bee to insert its sting, as nearly as pos- 
sible, in the same spot. He used no remedies of any kind, 
and had the satisfaction, in his zeal for new discoveries, of 
suffering more from the pain and swelling than for years 
before. 

That the bee-keeper becomes inoculated with the poison 



BEES AS MEANS OF DEFENSE. 205 

of the bee, and usually becomes proof against it, is no 
more to be doubted than the fact that vaccination is a 
preservative against small-pox. The recent discoveries of 
Pasteur, for the cure of hydrophobia, are another evidence 
of the efficiency of inoculation. 

Bees as Means of Defense. 



405. "A small corsair, equipped with forty or fifty men, and 
having on hoard some bees, purposely taken from a neighboring 
island, and confined in earthen hives (275), was pursued by a 
Turkish galley. As the latter boarded her, the sailors threw the 
hives from the masts down into the galley. The earthen hives 
broke into fragments and the bees dispersed all over the boat. 
The Turks who had looked on the small corsair with contempt, 
as an easy prey, did not expect so singular an attack. Finding 
themselves defenseless against the stings, they were so fright- 
ened, that the men of the corsair, who had provided themselves 
with masks and gloves, took possession of the galley, almost 
without resistance." 

"Amurat, Emperor of Turkey, having besieged Alba, and 
made a breach in the walls, found the breach defended by bees, 
whose hives had been brought on the ruins. The Janissaries, 
the bravest militia of the Ottoman empire, refused to clear the 
obstacle." — (Delia Rocca, 1790,) 



206 NATURAL SWARMING. 



CHAPTER VI. 



NATURAL SWARMING. 



406. In the Spring, as soon as the combs of a hive, 
well filled, can no longer accommodate its teeming popula- 
tion, the bees prepare for emigration, or in other words, for 
departing with their queen, by building a number of ro3 T al- 
cells (104). These cells are begun about the time that 
the drones make their appearance in the open air ; and when 
the young queens arrive at maturity, the males are usually 
ver}^ numerous (186). 

The swarmino- of bees is one of the most beautiful sights 
in the whole compass of rural econonry. Although those 
who use movable-comb hives prefer the artificial multiplica- 
tion of colonies, it being more profitable, all Apiarists 
delight in the pleasing excitement of natural swarming. 

" Up mounts the chief, and to the cheated eye 
Ten thousand shuttles dart along the sky; 
As swift through aether rise the rushing swarms, 
Gay dancing to the beam their sun-bright forms ; 
And each thin form, still ling'ring on the sight, 
Trails, as it shoots, a line of silver light. 
High pois'd on buoyant wing, the thoughtful queen, 
In gaze attentive, views the varied scene. 
And soon her far-fetch'd ken discerns below 
The light laburnum lift her polish'd brow, 
Wave her green leafy ringlets o'er the glade, 
And seem to beckon to her friendly shade. 
Swift as the falcon's sweep, the monarch bends 
Her flight abrupt ; the following host descends. 
Round the fine twig, like cluster'd grapes, they close 
In thickening wreaths, and court a short repose." 

Evans. 



NATURAL SWARMING. 



207 



407. Bees sometimes abandon their hives very early in 
Spring, or even late in Summer or Fall (264). Although 
exhibiting the appearance of natural swarming, they leave, 




not because the population is so crowded that they wish to 
form new colonies, but because it is either so small, or the 
hive so destitute of supplies, that they are driven to desper- 



208 NATURAL SWARMING. 

ation. Seeming to have a presentiment that they must 
perish if they stay, instead of awaiting the sure approach 
of famine, they sally out to see if they cannot better their 
condition. Such desertions should not be mistaken for 
natural swarming. 

408. The time, when new swarms may be expected, 
depends, of course, upon the climate, the forwardness of the 
season, and the strength of the colonies. In our Northern 
and Middle States, they seldom issue before the latter part 
of May ; and June may there be considered as the great 
swarming month. In Brownsville, Texas, on the lower Rio 
Grande, bees 'often swarm quite early in March. 

Swarming does not always take place in Spring, although 
this is the usual time for it. Swarms are likely tg issue in 
any locality, whenever the hive is crowded for room, or 
nearry so, during a good and prolonged hone} T -harvest. In 
warm latitudes, it lasts for several months, owing to a con- 
tinuous flow of honey. Wherever there are two distinct 
honey crops (705), there are also two swarming seasons, 
especially along the low lands or river bottoms, where 
Fall pasturage is abundant. Swarms, hived during the fore- 
part of either of these honejr seasons, are always the best; 
having a few weeks of hone}- crop before them, they have 
ample time to build comb (198), and fill it with honey and 
brood ; while swarms which are cast during the latter part 
of either the clover or the Fall harvest, coming as they do. 
just before a dearth of honey, are unable to build comb and 
raise brood, and easily perish, if left to themselves. Thus, 
a swarm harvested in August, in this latitude, at the open- 
ing of the Fall crop, stands better chances than one har- 
vested in Jury, at the close of the clover and basswood 
crop. 



PRIMARY SWARM. 209 



First or Primary Swarm 

409. The first swarm is almost invariably led off by the 
old queen, unless she has died from accident or disease, 
when it is accompanied by one of the j^oung ones reared to 
supply her loss. There are no signs from which the Apia- 
rist can predict the certain issue of a first swarm. For 
3<ears, we spent much time in the vain attempt to discover 
some infallible indications of first swarming; until facts 
convinced us that there can be no such indications. 

410. If the weather is unpleasant, or the blossoms yield 
an insufficient supply of hone} T , bees often change their 
minds, and refuse to swarm at all. If, in the swarming 
season, but few bees leave a strong hive, on a clear, calm, 
and warm day, when other colonies are busily at work, we 
may look with great confidence for a swarm, unless the 
weather prove suddenly unfavorable. 

If the weather is very sultry, a swarm will sometimes 
issue as early as seven o'clock in the morning; but from 
ten, a. m., to two, p. m., is the usual time ; and the majority 
of swarms come off when the sun is within an hour of the 
meridian. Occasionally, a swarm ventures out as late as 
five, p. m. ; but an old queen is seldom guilty of such an 
indiscretion. 

411. We have repeatedly witnessed in our observing- 
hives (374) the whole process of swarming. On the day 
fixed for departure, the queen is very restless, and instead 
of depositing her eggs in the cells, roams over the combs, 
and communicates her agitation to the whole colony. The 
emigrating bees usually fill themselves with honey, just 
before their departure ; but in one instance, we saw them 
lay in their supplies more than two hours before they left. 
A short time before the swarm rises, a few bees may gener- 
ally be seen sporting in the air, with their heads turned 

14 



210 NATURAL SWARMING. 

alwaj-s to the hive ; and they occasionally fly in and out, 
as though impatient for the important event to take place. 
At length, a violent agitation commences in the hive ; the 
bees appear almost frantic, whirling around in circles con- 
tinually enlarging, like those made by a stone thrown into 
still water, until, at last, the whole hive is in a state of the 
greatest ferment, and the bees, rushing impetuously to the 
entrance, pour forth in one steady stream. Not a bee looks 
behind, but each pushes straight ahead, as though filing 
"for dear life," or urged on by some invisible power, in 
itsTieadlong career. 

412. Often, the queen does not come out until man} 7 
have left ; and she is sometimes so heavy , from the number 
of eggs in her ovaries, that she falls to the ground, incapa- 
ble of rising with her colony into the air (40). The bees 
soon miss her, and a very interesting scene may now be 
witnessed. Diligent search is at once made for their lost 
mother ; the swarm scattering in all directions, so that the 
leaves of the adjoining trees and bushes are often covered 
almost as quickly with anxious explorers, as with drops of 
rain after a copious shower. If she cannot be found, they 
commonly return to the old hive, in from five to fifteen min- 
utes. 

413. The ringing of bells and beating of kettles and 
frying-pans to cause swarms to settle, is probably not 
a whit more efficacious, than the hideous noises of some 
savage tribes, who, imagining that the sun, in an eclipse, 
has been swallowed by an enormous dragon, resort to such 
means to compel his snakeship to disgorge their favorite 
luminary. 

Many who have never practiced " tanging," have never 
had a swarm leave without settling. Still, as one of the 
" country sounds," and as a relic of the olden-times, even 
the most matter-of-fact bee-man can readily excuse the 
enthusiasm of that pleasant writer in the London Quarterly 
Review, who discourses as follows : 



PRIMARY SWARM. 211 

" Some fine, warm morning in May or June, the whole atmos- 
phere seems alive with thousands of bees, whirling and buzzing, 
passing and repassing, wheeling about in rapid circles, like a 
group of maddened bacchanals. Out runs the good housewife, 
with frying-pan and key — the orthodox instruments for ringing — 
and never ceases her rough music, till the bees have settled. 
This custom, as old as the birth of Jupiter, is one of the most 
pleasing and exciting of the countryman's life ; and there is an 
old colored print of bee-ringing still occasionally met with on 
the walls of a country-inn, that has charms for us, and makes us 
think of bright, sunny weather in the dreariest November day. 
Whether, as Aristotle says, it affects them through pleasure or 
fear, or whether, indeed, they hear it at all, is still as uncertain as 
that philosopher left it ; but we can wish no better luck to every 
bee-master that neglects the tradition, than that he may lose 
every swarm for which he omits to raise this time-honored con- 
cert." 

414. The queen sometimes alights first, and sometimes 
joins the cluster after it has begun to form. The bees do 
not usually settle, unless she is with them ; and when they 
do, and then disperse, it is frequently the case that, after 
first rising with them, she has fallen, from weakness, into 
some spot where she is unnoticed by the bees. 

Perceiving a hive in the act of swarming, the writer on 
two occasions, contracted the entrance, to secure the queen 
when she should make her appearance. In each case, at 
least one-third of the bees came out before she joined them. 
As soon as the swarm ceased searching for her, and were 
returning to the parent-hive, he placed her, with her wings 
clipped, on a limb of a small evergreen tree, when she 
crawled to the very top of the limb, as if for the express 
purpose of making herself as conspicuous as possible. The 
few bees, that first noticed her, instead of alighting, darted 
rapidly to their companions ; in a few seconds, the whole 
colony was apprised of her presence, and flying in a dense 
cloud, began quietly to cluster around her. Bees, when on 
the wing, intercommunicate with such surprising rapidity, 
that telegraphic signals are scarcely more instantaneous. 



212 NATURAL SWARMING. 

415. That bees send out scouts to seek a suitable abode, 
admits of no se-rious question. Swarms have been traced 
directly to their new home, in an air-line flight, from the 
place where they clustered after alighting. Now this pre- 
cision of flight to an unknown home, would plainly be im- 
possible, if some of their number, by previous explorations, 
were not competent to act as guides to the rest. The sight 
of bees for distant objects is so wonderfully acute, that, 
after rising to a sufficient elevation, they can see, at the 
distance of several miles, any prominent objects in the 
vicinity of their intended abode. (13-14.) 

"Whether bees send out scouts before or after swarming, 
may admit of more question, but these scouts are usually 
absent for an hour or more, after the alighting of the swarm. 

It is probable that most of the scouts are sent during the 
alighting ; otherwise how could they know where the swarm 
alighted, so as to come back to it? 

The necessity for scouts or explorers seems to be un- 
questionable, unless we admit that bees have the faculty of 
flying in an " air line," to a hollow tree, which they have 
never seen, and which may be the only one among thous- 
ands where the}^ can find a suitable abode. 

These views are confirmed by the repeated instances in 
which a few bees have been noticed inquisitively prying 
into a hole in a hollow tree, or the cornice of a building, and 
have, before long, been followed by a whole colony. 

About fift} T yards from our home Apiary, there Avas a 
large hollow oak tree, which we called "The Squirrel's 
Oak," because every season it sheltered a family of these 
pretty animals. One Summer we noticed for several days 
some bees fl} T ing, in and out of a hole, in one of its largest 
limbs. It seemed to us that they were cleaning the hollow, 
and we supposed that a swarm had taken possession of it. 
A change in the weather having taken place, the swarming 
preparations were discontinued, and we never again noticed 



PRIM A II Y SWARM. 213 

any bees around the limb. The tree was cut clown the follow- 
ing Winter, and no trace of comb was found in the hollow. 
It proved conclusively, that the bees we had seen, were 
scouts in search of a lodging. 

416. The swarm sometimes remains until the next day, 
where bees have clustered in leaving the hive, and instances 
are not unfrequent of a more protracted delay. 

If the weather is hot when they first cluster, and the sun 
shines directly upon them, they will often leave before they 
have found a suitable habitation. Sometimes the queen of 
emigrating bees, being heavy with eggs, and unaccus- 
tomed to fly, is compelled to alight, before she can reach 
their intended home. Queens, under such circumstances, 
are occasionally unwilling to take wing again, and the poor 
bees sometimes attempt to lay the foundations of their col- 
ony on fence-rails, hay-stacks, or other unsuitable places. 

Mr. Wagner once knew a swarm of bees to lodge under 
the lowermost limb of an isolated oak-tree, in a corn-field. 
It was not discovered until the corn was harvested, in Sep- 
tember. Those who found it, mistook it for a recent swarm, 
and in brushing it down to hive it, broke off three pieces of 
comb, each about eight inches square. Mr. Henry M. Zol- 
lickoffer, of Philadelphia, informed us that he knew a swarm 
to settle on a willow- tree in that city, in a lot owned by the 
Pennsylvania Hospital ; it remained there for some time, 
and the boys pelted it with stones, to get possession of its 
comb and honey. 

If the Apiary is located in the woods, and the bees are 
allowed to swarm, they may settle on high trees, and the 
bee-master, unless some special precautions are used, will 
lose much time in hiving his swarms. 

417. Having noticed that swarming bees will almost 
always alight wherever they see others clustered, we 
found that they can be determined to some selected spot 
by an old black hat, or even a mullen-stalk, which, when col- 



214 NATURAL SWARMING. 

ored black, can hardly be distinguished, at a distance, from 
a clustering swarm. A black woolen stocking or piece of 
cloth, fastened to a shadj T limb, or to a pole, in plain sight 
of the hives, and where the bees can be most conveniently 
hived, would answer as good a purpose. Swarms are not 
only attracted by the bee-like color of such objects, but are 
more readily induced to alight upon them, if they furnish 
something to which they can easily cling, the better to sup- 
port their grape-like clusters. 

Still better than the above, a frame of dry comb, as dark 
as possible, will often attract the bees and cause them to 
cluster. None of these devices however are infallible ; hence 
the advisabilit} T of locating an Apiary among low trees or 
bushes, or in an orchard, if possible. 

When no trees or bushes are to be found, and no settling 
place has been provided, the}^ will settle wherever the queen 
may happen to alight, on a grape-vine, on weeds, on the 
ground, on the corner of a building, etc. 

418. It will inspire the inexperienced Apiarist with more 
confidence, to remember that almost all the bees in a swarm, 
are in a very peaceable mood, having filled themselves with 
honey before leaving the parent-stock (380). Yet there 
are, in nearly every swarm, a few bees that have either 
joined from a neighboring hive, or have not filled their 
honey-sack completely before leaving. These bees are liable 
to get angry, when the swarm is harvested. So, if the Api- 
arist is timid, or suffers severely from the sting of a bee, he 
should, by all means, furnish himself with the protection of 
a bee-dress (386). The use of a smoker (382), is also 
advisable, both in preventing the bees from stinging, and in 
helping to drive them into the hive ; but it must not be used 
plentifully, as it might cause the bees to abscond, or to 
return to the clustering spot. 

419. A new sicarm should be hived as soon as the bees have 
quietly clustered around their queen; although there is no 



PRIMARY SWARM. 215 

necessity for the headlong haste practiced by some, which 
increases their liability to be stung. Those who show so 
little self-possession, must not be surprised, if they are stung 
by the bees of other hives ; which, instead of being gorged 
with honey, are on the alert, and very naturally mistake the 
object of such excited demonstrations. The fact that the 
bees have clustered, makes it almost certain, that, unless 
the weather is very hot, or they are exposed to the burning 
heat of the sun, they will not leave for at least one or two 
hours. All convenient dispatch, however, should be used in 
hiving a swarm, lest the scouts have time to return, — which 
will entice them to go, — or lest other colonies issue, and 
attempt to add themselves to it. 

420. Should you give the scouts time to return, you would 
first see a few bees flying around the cluster. Slowly their 
number would increase, till the whole swarm took wing, and 
it would be almost useless to try to stop it, or to follow it. 
When a swarm thus takes flight, it knows no bounds. 
Hedges, fences, woods, walls, ditches, rivers, are barriers 
only to the breathless and disappointed owner. The only 
thing that we ever have known to stop a departing swarm 
is throwing water among them. Flashing the sun's rays on 
them by the use of a looking-glass is advised by some. We 
tried it, but did not succeed in a single instance. 

421. As a matter of course, we suppose that the Apia- 
rist has an empty hive in readiness, clean and cool. Bees, 
when they swarm, being unnaturally heated, often refuse to 
enter hives that have been standing in the sun, or at best 
are slow in taking possession of them. The temperature of 
the parent-stock, at the moment of swarming, rises very 
suddenly, and many bees are often so drenched with per- 
spiration, that they cannot take wing to join the emigrating 
colon} 7 . To attempt to make swarming bees enter a heated 
hive in a blazing sun, is, therefore, as irrational as it would 
be to force a panting crowd of human beings into the suff o- 



216 NATURAL SWARMING. 

eating atmosphere of a close garret. If the process of hiv- 
ing cannot be conducted in the shade, the hive should be 
covered with a sheet or with leafy boughs. 

422. In the movable-comb hive, every good piece of 
worker-comb, if large enough to be attached to a frame, 
should be used, both for its intrinsic value, and because 
bees are so pleased when the}* find such unexpected treas- 
ure in a hive, that they will seldom forsake it. A new 
swarm often takes possession of a deserted hive, well stored 
with comb ; whilst, if dozens of empty ones stand in the 
Apiary, the bees very seldom enter them of their own accord. 
It once seemed to us that an instinct impelling them to do 
so, would have been much better for us than the present 
arrangement ; but further reflection has shown us that, on 
the contrary, it would have been a fruitful source of dis- 
putes among neighboring bee-keepers ; and that in this, as 
in so many other things, the instincts of the honey-bee have 
been devised with special reference to the welfare of man. 

" The bee-keepers of Greece used to attract the swarms into 
their hives by rubbing the entrance and the inside of their empty 
hives with bees-wax and propolis. But such practice was often 
the cause of contests between neighbors, for their bees did not 
inquire about the ownership of the hive selected." — (Delia Roc- 
ca, 1790.) 

Drone-combs (224) should never be put up in frames, or 
the bees may follow the pattern, and build comb suitable 
only for breeding a horde of useless consumers. 

423. Frames containing worker combs, from colonies 
that have died in the previous Winter are very good, if the 
comb is dry and clean. Combs of hone}* will do if the 
swarm is hived on a propitious day, otherwise they will at- 
tract robbers (664) and the presence of the latter will 
prevent the swarm from entering the hive. For this reason, 
combs containing honey should not be given to the swarm 
until the following evening. 



PRIMARY SWARM. 217 

But when a few combs only are given to a swarm, as the 
queen will not follow the builders (229), too much drone 
comb (224) will be built. Then, in hiving a swarm, the 
Apiarist had better dispense with giving any, unless he fills 
the hive (234). 

424. In the absence of combs or comb-foundation, 
(674) the triangular comb-guide will greatly help to se- 
cure straight combs, in the frames, but it cannot be depend- 
ed upon, in everj^ case. Comb-foundation in full sheets is 
so far superior, and is now in such general use, that the 
triangular comb-guide (319) is discardedby most Apiarists. 
By the use of comb-foundation, crooked combs, — the bane 
of the Apiary — are no longer found, and every comb hangs 
in its frame, as straight as a board. 

425. It has been held, of late, by some writers, that 
the use of empty combs, or comb-foundation, was detri- 
mental, in hiving natural swarms, because the bees filled the 
combs given them, with hone} T , and left but little room for 
the queen to lay. This actually takes place in extraordi- 
nary seasons and locations, but in the greater number of 
instances, the empty combs help the colony greatly, and, 
in bad seasons, a hive-full of empty combs, furnished to a 
swarm, is equivalent to saving it from starvation, since the 
combs of a hive cost the bees almost as much honey as is 
necessary for them to winter on (223). Should they fill 
the combs nearly full of honey, this honey will be partly 
used up during the dearth which usually comes after the 
honey harvest, and will serve in rearing brood to 
strengthen the hive before Winter. Better be safe than sorry . 

426. It is very important that the frames should hang- 
true in the hive, and at the proper distance apart (316). 
If the hive has to be removed, thej^ should be previously 
fastened in their places, by the use of small wire nails only 
partly driven, and removed later. The cloth (352) and 
mat (353) should be carefully placed over the frames, or 



218 NATURAL SWARMING. 

the swarm would build and raise brood in the upper story, 
intended only for surplus honey. 

42 7. When the hive is thus prepared and placed in a 
convenient position, the entrance should be opened as wide 
as possible. If it has a movable-bottom-board, it should be 
raised from it in front (344), and the entrance-blocks in- 
serted under its edges, so as to leave a larger passage for 
the swarm, that the bees may get in as soon as possible ; and 
a well-stretched sheet, or coarse cloth, should be securely 
fastened to the alighting-board, to keep them from becom- 
ing separated, or soiled by dirt ; for, if separated, they are 
a long time in entering ; and a bee covered with dust or 
dirt is very apt to perish. Bees are much obstructed in 
their travel, by any corner, or great inequality of surface ; 
and if the sheet is not smoothly stretched, they are often so 
confused, that it takes them a long time to find the entrance 
to the hive. 

428. If the bees have alighted on a small limb, which 
can be cut with sharp pruning-shears, without jarring the 
swarm, or damaging the value of the tree, they may be gently 
carried on it to the hiving-sheet, in front of their new home. 
If they seem at all reluctant to enter it, gently scoop up a 
few of them with a large spoon, or a leafy twig, or 
even with the fingers (72), and shake them close to its en- 
trance. As they go in with fanning wings, the}' will raise 
a peculiar note, which communicates to their companions 
the joyful news that they have found a home ; and in a 
short time, the whole swarm will enter, without injury to a 
single bee. 

When bees are once shaken down on the sheet, they are 
quite unwilling to take wing again ; for, being loaded with 
hone} r , they desire, like heavih T -armed troops, to march 
slowly and sedately to their place of encampment. 

429. When they alight on a high limb, which cannot be 
reached, or when the limb is too valuable to be sacrificed, 




PRIMARY SWARM. 219 

the swarm can be hived by using a light box or swarm-sack, 
at the end of a pole of proper length. 
This swarm sack (fig. 87) is made of 
strong muslin, about two feet deep, 
fastened around a wire hoop, about 
one foot in diameter, and is similar 
to a butterfly net. A piece of braid, 
Fig- 87. is sewed at the bottom, inside and 

warm-sack. outside, to help in emptying it. 

When the sack is placed under the swarm, the bees are sud- 
denly shaken into it by a single tap on the limb. Hold the 
sack firmly, as the sudden weight will draw it down in a 
most unexpected manner. To prevent the bees from 
escaping, hold the handle perpendicularly, as this will close 
the opening of the bag instantly. 

430. In bringing it to the hive, and turning it inside 
out, by holding the braid with the fingers, some care must 
be exercised, as this unceremonious imprisoning of the bees 
is apt to cause some to be angry. A little smoke (282) 
should be used, or a few seconds should be allowed to 
elapse before they are gently liberated in front of the hive. 

431. The sack is preferable to a box or a basket, as the 
latter do not close readily, and a number of the bees are 
apt to fly back to the clustering spot, before they are emp- 
tied in front of their intended abode. 

If this happens, the process of hiving must be repeated, 
unless the queen has been secured, when they will quickly 
form a line of communication with those on the sheet. If 
the queen has not been secured, the bees will either refuse 
to enter the hive, or will speedily come out* and take wing, 

* It is a mistake to suppose that a swarm will not enter a hive unless the 
queen is with them. If some start for it, the others will speedily follow, all 
seeming to take it for granted that the queen is somewhere among them. 
Even after they begin to disperse in search of her, they may often be induced 
to return, by pouring out a fresh lot of bees, which, by entering the hive with 
fanning wings, cause the others to believe that the queen is coming at last. 



220 NATURAL SWARMING. 

to join her again. This happens oftenest with after-swarms, 
whose } T oung queens, instead of exhibiting the gravity of an 
old matron, are apt to be frisking in the air. 

When the swarm is clustered so high that the sack can- 
not be raised to it on a pole, it may be carried up to the 
cluster, and the bee-keeper, after shaking the bees into it, 
may gently lower it, by a string, to an assistant below. 

432. When a colony alights on the trunk of a tree, or 
on anything from which the bees cannot easily be gathered 
in a basket, or in the sack, fasten a leafy bough, or a comb 
over them, and with a little smoke, compel them to ascend 
it. If the place is inaccessible, they will enter a well- shad- 
ed basket, inverted, and elevated just above the clustered 
mass. We once hived a neighbor's swarm, which settled 
in a thicket, on the inaccessible body of a tree, by throw- 
ing water upon the bees, so as to compel them gradually 
to ascend the tree, and enter an elevated box. If proper 
alighting places are not furnished, the trouble of hiving a 
swarm will often be greater than its value. 

433. If the swarm is noticed, when it begins to issue 
from the parent hive, the practical bee-keeper often har- 
vests it without trouble, by catching the queen (100). 
Provided with a queen cage (536), he watches for her exit, 
and as she comes out, he seizes her and places her in the 
cage. He then removes the old hive, and places the new 
one, read} T for the swarm, on its stand, with the caged 
queen on the platform. The swarm may alight, but as 
soon as the bees notice their loss, they will return, and will 
cluster around her ; and the hiving of the swarm takes but 
a few minutes. In a circumstance of this kind, it is well to 
return the parent colony to its stand, after the swarm is 
hived, for, if entirel}- removed, it would lose all the bees 
that were in the field, when the swarm left, and would be 
too much weakened. 

434. To prevent primary swarms from escaping, some 



PRIMARY SWARM. 221 

bee-keepers clip one of the wings of their queens previous 
to the swarming season.* 

As an old queen leaves the hive only with a new swarm, 
the loss of her wings in no way interferes with her usefulness, 
or the attachment of the bees. If, in spite of her inability 
to fly, she is bent on emigrating, though she has a "will," 
she can find "no way," but helplessly falls to the ground, 
instead of gaily mounting into the air. If the bees find 
her, they cluster around her, and may be easily secured by 
the Apiarist ; if she is not found, they return to the parent- 
stock, to await the maturity of the young queens. 

This method will do, provided the Apiary ground is bare, 
so that the queen runs no risk of getting lost in the grass. 
We abandoned it, after having tried it, for several years, 
but we know of some owners of large Apiaries who are suc- 
cessful with it. We notice that Mr. Heddon, in his inter- 
esting work, "Success in Bee-Culture," is of our opinion 
on this subject. 

435. Where a great many colonies are kept, several 
swarms may issue at the same time, and unite in a single 
cluster. 

If two swarms cluster together, they may be advanta- 
geously kept together, if abundant room for storing surplus 
honey can be given them. Large quantities of honey are 
generally obtained from such colonies, if they issue early, 
and the season is favorable. 

" When more than two swarms have clustered together, it is 
better to divide them. Let us suppose that three have united. 
After putting three hives near each .other, so as to form a trian- 
gle, the sack (429) or box, in which the bees have been captured, 

* Virgil speaks of clipping the wings of queens, to prevent them from escap- 
ing with a swarm. Mr. Langstroth had devised a way of doing this, so as to 
designate the nr/e of the queen*: — With a pair of scissors, let the wings, on one 
side, of a young queen be carefully cut off: when the hives are examined next 
year, let one of her two remaining wings be removed, and the last one the 
third year. 



222 NATURAL SWARMING. 

is shaken on a cloth just between the three. If most of the bees 
seem to go into the same hive, this should be removed a little 
farther. Great care should be exercised to find the queens, and 
to direct one towards each hive. But if only one queen is seen, 
it is better to cage (536) her till the greater part of the bees 
have entered. Then, as soon as the bees of one of the hives 
show signs of uneasiness, and seem ready to join the bees in the 
others, release the queen, and direct her towards this queenless 
hive and all will be well." — (Hamet, " Cours d'Apiculture," 
Paris, 1866.) 

436. If two queens have entered the same hive, they 
can often be found on its bottom-board, each in a ball 
(538) of angry bees, strangers to them. Open the ball, 
and give one of the queens to the queenless hive, if the bees 
have not already deserted it. When queens have been 
" balled" by mixed swarms, it is well to keep them caged, 
in the hive, for a few hours, or till the bees have quieted. 
The quantity of bees in each hive can be equalized, by 
shaking a few from the strongest in front of the weakest 
(72). 

437. Dr. Scudamore, an English physician, who has 
written a tract on the Formation of Artificial Swarms, 
says that he once knew as "many as ten swarms go forth at 
once, and settle and mingle together, forming, literally, a 
monster meeting." There are instances recorded of a still 
larger number having clustered together. A venerable 
clergyman in Western Massachusetts, told us that in the 
Apiary of one of his parishioners, five swarms once clus- 
tered together. As he had no hive which would hold them, 
they were put into a large box, roughly nailed together. 
When taken up in the Fall, it was evident that the five 
swarms had lived together as independent colonies. Four 
had begun their work, each near a corner of the box, and 
the fifth in the middle ; and there was a distinct interval 
separating the works of the different colonies. In Cot- 
ton's " My Bee Book," is a cut illustrating a similar sepa- 



PRIMARY SWARM. 223 

ration of two colonies in one hive. By hiving, in a large 
box, swarms which have settled together, and leaving them 
undisturbed till the following morning, they would some- 
times be found in separate clusters, and might easily be put 
into different hives. 

If the Apiarist fears that another swarm will issue, to 
unite with the one he is hiving, he may cover the latter from 
the sight of other swarms, with a sheet. 

438. If, while hiving a swarm, he wishes to secure the 
queen, the bees should be shaken from the hiving-basket, a 
foot or more from the hive, when a quick eye will generally 
see her as she passes over the sheet. If the bees are reluc- 
tant to go in, a few must be directed to the entrance, and 
care be taken to brush them back, when they press forward 
in such dense masses that the queen is likely to enter unob- 
served. An experienced eye readily detects her peculiar 
color and form (100). 

It is interesting to witness how speedily a queen passes 
into the hive, as soon as she recognizes the joyful note (76) 
announcing that her colony has found a home. She quickly 
follows in the direction of the moving mass, and her long 
legs enable her easily to outstrip, in the race for possession, 
all who attempt to follow her. Other bees linger around 
the entrance, or fly into the air, or collect in listless knots 
on the sheet ; but a fertile mother, with an air of conscious 
importance, marches straight forward, and looking neither 
to the right hand nor to the left, glides into the hive with 
the same dispatchful haste that characterizes a bee return- 
ing fully laden from the nectar-bearing fields. 

439. Swarms sometimes come off when no suitable hives 
are in readiness to receive them. In such an emergency, 
hive them in any old box, cask, or measure, and place 
them, with suitable protection against the sun, where their 
new hive is to stand ; when this is ready, they may, by a 
quick, jerking motion, be easily shaken out before it, on a 
hiving-sheet. 



224 NATURAL SWARMING. 

Persons unaccustomed to bees, may think that we speak 
about "scooping them up," and "shaking them out," 
almost as cooly as though giving directions to measure so 
many bushels of wheat ; experience will soon convince 
them, that the ease with which they may be managed (72) 
is not at all exaggerated. 

440. Bees which swarm earl}' in the day will generally 
begin to range the fields in a few hours after they are hived, 
or even in a few minutes, if the}' have empty comb ; and 
the fewest bees will be lost when the hive is removed to its 
permanent stand, as soon as the bees have entered it. If it 
is desirable, for any reason, to remove the hive before all 
the bees have gone in, the sheet, on which the bees are 
lying, may be so folded that the colony can be easily 
carried to their new stand, where the beea may enter at 
their leisure. 

While the hive should be set so as to incline slightly from 
rear to front (328), to shed the rain, there ought not to be 
the least pitch from side to side, or it will prevent the frames 
from hanging plumb, and compel the bees to build crooked 
combs. 

441. If several rainy days, or a dearth of honey, should 
occur immediately after the hiving of bees, it is well to 
feed (606) them a little to keep them from starving, till 
there is honey iu the blossoms. 

442. The Apiarist has already been informed of the 
importance of securing straight worker combs for his hives 
(318). To a stock-hive, such combs are like cash capital 
to a business man ; and so long as they are fit for use, they 
should never be destroyed. 

Mr. S. Wagner had a colony over 21 years old, whose 
young bees appeared to be as large as any others in his 
Apiary. Mr. J. F. Racine, an old settler of Wallen, Indi- 
ana, lost a colony in the Winter of 1884-5 which he had 
had ever since 1855, without changing the combs. He con- 
sidered it one of the best in his Apiary. 



PRIMARY SWARM. 225 

Those who have plenty of good worker-comb, will un- 
questionably find it to their advantage to use it in the place 
of comb-foundation (674) or artificial guides. Those who 
use the guides (319), should examine a swarm two or 
three days after it is hived, when, by a little management, 
any irregularities in their combs may be easily corrected. 
Some combs may need a little compression, to bring them 
into their proper positions, and others may even require to 
be cut out, and fastened as guides in other frames ; but no 
pains should be spared to see that they are all right, before 
the work has gone so far as to make it laborious to remedy 
any defects. If a swarm is small, it ought to be confined, by 
a movable partition (349), to such a space in the hive as 
it can occupy with comb — as well for its encouragement, as 
to economize its animal heat. Varro, who flourished before 
the Christian Era, says (Liber III, Cap. xviii), that bees 
become dispirited, when placed in hives that are too large. 



Primary Swarm with a Young Queen. 



443. We have already stated (157) that queens die of 
old age, when about four years old. If the preparations for 
queen rearing (489) are begun during the swarming sea- 
son, from th's cause, or by her death through accident, or 
because she has been removed by the Apiarist, it very 
often happens that bees prevent the first hatched queen 
from destroying her riva's (112), and the result is that a 
swarm leaves the hive with her. These primary swarms with 
young queens, are cast as unexpectedly, and may te as 
strong as those that are accompanied by the old queen. 
They have that in common with secondary swarms, that 
they behave like them, both in their exit and afterwards. 
15 



226 natural swarming. 

Secondary or After-Swarms. 

444. Having described the method commonly pursued 
for hiving a new swarm, we return to the parent-colony from 
which they emigrated. 

From the immense number which have abandoned it, we 
should naturally infer that it must be nearly depopulated. To 
those who limited the fertility of the queen to four hundred 
eggs a day, the rapid replenishing of a hive, after swarm- 
ing, must have been inexplicable ; but to those who have 
seen her lay from one to four thousand eggs a day, it is no 
mystery at all (40). Enough bees remain to carry on the 
domestic operations of the hive ; and as the old queen de- 
parts only when there is a teeming population, and when 
thousands of young are daily hatching, and tens of thou- 
sands rapidly maturing, the hive, in a short time, is almost as 
populous as it was before swarming. 

Those who suppose that the new colony consists wholly 
of young bees, forced to emigrate by the older ones, if they 
closely examine a new swarm, will find that while some 
have the ragged wings of age, others are so young as to be 
barely able to fly. 

After the tumult of swarming is over, not a bee that did 
not participate in it, attempts to join the new colony, and 
not one that did, seeks to return. What determines some 
to go, and others to stay, we have no certain means of 
knowing. How wonderful must be the impression made 
upon an insect, to cause it in a few minutes so completely 
to lose its strong affection for the old home, that when 
established in a hive only a few feet distant, it pa} T s not the 
slightest attention to its former abode ! 

445. It has already been stated that, if the weather is 
favorable, the old queen usually leaves near the time that 
the young queens are sealed over to be changed into 



SECONDARY SWARMS. 227 

nymphs. In about a week, one of them hatches ; and the 
question must be decided whether or not, any more colo- 
nies shall be formed that season. If the hive is well filled 
with bees, and the season is in all respects promising, it is 
generally decided in the affirmative ; although, under such 
circumstances, some very strong colonies refuse to swarm 
more than once. 

If the bees of the parent-colony decide to prevent the first 
hatched queen from killing the others, a strong guard is 
kept over their cells, and as often as she approaches them 
with murderous intent, she is bitten, or given to understand 
by other most uncourtier-like demonstrations, that even a 
queen cannot, in all things, do just as she pleases. 

446. About a week after first swarming, should the 
Apiarist place his ear against the hive, in the morning or 
evening, when the bees are still, if the queens are "piping," 
he will readily recognize their peculiar sounds (115). The 
young queens are all mature, at the latest, in sixteen days 
from the departure of the first swarm, even if it left as 
soon as the royal cells were begun. 

The second swarm usually issues on the first or second 
day after piping is heard ; though the bees sometimes delay 
coming out until the fifth day, in consequence of an unfa- 
vorable state of the weather. Occasionally, the weather is 
so very unfavorable, that they permit the oldest queen 
to kill the others, and refuse to sw T arm again. This is a 
rare occurrence, as young queens are not so particular 
about the weather as old ones, and sometimes venture out, 
not merely when it is cloudy, but when rain is falling. On 
this account, if a very close watch is not kept, they are 
often lost. As piping ordinarily commences about a week 
after first-swarming, the second swarm usually issues eight 
or nine days after the first ; although it has been known to 
issue as early as the third, and as late as the seventeenth ; 
but such cases are very rare. 



228 NATURAL SWARMING. 

447. It frequently happens, in the agitation of swarm- 
ing, that the usual guard over the queen-cells is withdrawn, 
and several hatch at the same time, and accompany the col- 
ony ; in which case the bees often alight in two or more 
separate clusters. In our observing- hives, we have repeat- 
edly seen young queens thrust out their tongues from a 
hole in their cell, to be fed by the bees. If allowed to issue 
at will, they are pale and weak, like other young bees, and 
for some time unable to fly ; but if confined the usual time, 
they come forth fully colored, and ready for all emergen- 
cies. We have seen them issue in this state, while the 
excitement caused by remo\ing the combs from a hive, has 
driven the guard from their cells. 

The following remarkable instance came under our obser- 
vation, in Matamoras, Mexico : A second swarm deserting 
its abode the second day after being hived, settled upon a 
tree. On examining the abandoned hive, Jive young queens 
were found lying dead on its bottom-board. The swarm 
was returned, and, the next morning, two more dead queens 
were found. As the colony afterwards prospered, eight 
queens, at least, must have left the parent-colony in a single 
swarm ! 

Young queens, whose ovaries are not burdened with eggs, 
are much quicker on the wing than old ones, and frequently 
fly much farther fiom the parent-stock before they alight. 

447 (bis). The bee-keepers of old, who were not ac- 
quainted with the habits of bees, noticing that primary- 
swarms were more populous than after-swarms, used to 
brimstone (276) the old colony which bad swarmed, and 
its after-swarm, considering the first swarm as the best of 
the three; but this apparent superiority was often of short 
duration, for the first swarm is nearly always accompanied 
by the old queen. We know better now, since we consider 
the age of the queen as one of the qualities of a colony. 

448. After-swarms are much more prone to abscond or 



SECONDARY SWARMS. 229 

leave, after hiving, than primary-swarms. It is probably 
owing to the fact that the young queen has to go out for 
her bridal trip (121), and the bees sometimes leave with 
her. A comb of unsealed brood (166) given them will 
usually prevent this (109). An absconding swarm often 
leaves without settling. 

449. After the departure of the second swarm, the oldest 
remaining queen leaves her cell ; and if another swarm is 
to come forth, piping will still be heard ; and so before the 
issue of each swarm after the first. It will sometimes be 
heard for a short time after the issue of the second swarm, 
even when the bees do not intend to swarm again. The third 
swarm usually leaves the hive on the second or third day 
after the second swarm, and the others, at intervals of 
about a day. We once had five swarms from one stock, 
in less than two weeks. In warm latitudes, more than 
twice this number of swarms have been known to issue, in 
one season, from a single stock. 

After-swarms, or casts — these names are given to all 
swarms after the first — seriously reduce the strength of the 
parent-stock ; since by the time they issue, nearly all the 
brood left by the old queen has hatched, and no more eggs 
can be laid until all swarming is over. If, after swarming, 
the weather suddenly becomes chilly, and the hive is thin, 
or the Apiarist continues the ventilation which was needed 
only for a crowded colony, the remaining bees being unable 
to maintain the requisite heat, great numbers of the brood 
may perish. 

Prevention of Natural Swarming. 

450. The prevention of natural swarming, in the pres- 
ent state of bee-keeping, is an important item, for several 
reasons. 

1st, Bee-keeping has so spread in the last few years, that 



230 NATURAL SWARMING. 

many bee-keepers are possessors of as many colonies as 
they desire to keep. Most Apiarists, especially farmers, 
keep bees only for the honey, and as it is impossible to 
produce both an increase of stock, and a large yield of 
honey in average seasons, they prefer the production of 
honey to that of swarms. 

2nd, Another objection to natural swarming arises from 
the disheartening fact, that bees are liable to swarm so 
often, as to destroy the value of both the parent-stock, 
and its after-swarms. Experienced bee-keepers obviate 
this difficulty, by making one good colony out of two second 
swarms, and returning to the parent-stock all swarms after 
the second, and even this if the season is far advanced. 
Such operations often consume more time than they are 
worth. 

5cZ, The bees may be located in a town, near a pub- 
lic thoroughfare where people pass constantly, and acci- 
dents may take place ; or perhaps near the woods where 
the swarm would cluster on such high limbs that it would 
be difficult or impossible to hive them. 

4th. It is very troublesome to have to watch the bees for 
weeks, or to have them swarm at unexpected or unwelcome 
times, when the family is away, or at dinner, or while the 
owner is engaged with his business, for many bee-keepers 
are also law} r ers, doctors or merchants, occupied in daily 
labors, which require a definite part of their time. The far- 
mer may be interrupted in the business of hay-making, by 
the cry that his bees are swarming ; and by the time he has 
hived them, perhaps a shower comes up, and his hay is in- 
jured more than the swarm is worth. Thus the keeping of 
a few bees, instead of being a source of profit, may prove 
an expensive luxury ; while in a large Apiar} r , the embar- 
rassments are often seriously increased. If, after a succes- 
sion of days unfavorable for swarming, the weather becomes 
pleasant, it often happens that several swarms rise at once, 



PREVENTION OP NATURAL SWARMING. 231 

aud cluster together ; and not unfrequently, in the noise and 
confusion, other swarms fly off, and are lost. We have 
seen the bee-master, under such circumstances, so perplexed 
and exhausted as to be almost ready to wish he had never 
seen a bee. 

451. Mr. J. F. Racine, of Wallen, Allen Co., Indiana, 
had 505 natural swarms from 165 colonies in the summer of 
1883. Sixty-one swarms came out on the 3d of July. We 
will let him tell the story in his own way : 

" In the morning, as soon as the watchword had been given for 
the first swarm, there was no rest. Primary, secondary, and 
after-swarms, all passed under the same limb of the same tree. 
The bees were no sooner shaken in a basket, and emptied in front 
of a hive, than there was another cluster gathered, in the same 
spot. Some swarms had no queen, while others had 3, 4, and 
even 5 of them. Some were young queens, some were old queens. 
When we could find a queen, we caged her (536) to preserve 
her from being balled (53S). The sixty-one swarms were hived 
in 20 hives, and surplus cases were given them at once. A man, 
who had come with 5 hives to buy swarms, said that he had 
never seen the like, neither had I, although I have kept bees for 
57 years. And the best of it is, I did not want any swarms at 
all that season. " 

452. 5th. It is admitted, by all progressive people, that 
man can achieve a great deal by artificial selection and cul- 
tivation of plants and animals. The same selection is ad- 
visable in the reproduction of the honey-bee, and an increase 
from selected colonies or selected races, cannot always be 
had by natural swarming. In this, artificial swarming is 
much better, and gives much more satisfactory results when 
ever an increase is desirable. 

453. 6th. The numerous swarms lost every year, is a 
strong argument against natural swarming. 

An eminent Apiarist has estimated, that, taking into ac- 
count all who keep bees, one-fourth of the best swarms are 
lost every season. While some bee-keepers seldom lose a 
swarm, the majority suffer serious losses by the flight of 



232 NATURAL SWARMING. 

their bees to the woods ; and it is next to impossible, even 
for the most careful, to prevent such occurrences, if their 
bees are allowed to swarm. 

Apiarists will then recognize that it is very important to 
follow a method, which will nearly, if not altogether, pre- 
vent natural swarming. But in order to prevent it, we 
must know the causes of it. 

454. Natural swarming, so far, has been considered as a 
natural impulse in bees. Yet, it can be prevented, for it is 
always caused by uneasiness, as we will show in the next 
paragraph, or by an abnormal condition of the colony (465). 
It is caused : 

1st. In the majority of instances, by the want of room in 
the comb. By want of room, we do not mean want of 
empty space in the hive, but want of empty comb for the 
queen to deposit her eggs (97), or for the workers to de- 
posit their hone}'. So long as bees have an abundance of 
empty space below their main hive, they very seldom swarm ; 
but if it is on the sides of their hive, or above them, they 
often swarm rather than take possession of it. 

This happens, not only in the Southern latitudes, where 
the swarming instinct is so powerful, but even in our North- 
ern or Middle States. This fact is corroborated by Sim- 
mins, whose non-swarming system is based on the idea of 
keeping " open space and unfinished combs at the front, or 
adjoining the entrance." (Rottingdean, England, 1886.) 
Persons who are unacquainted with the details of bee-keep- 
ing have no idea how suddenly the honey harvest comes, 
and how rapidly the combs can be filled, when it once be- 
gins. Strong colonies which were almost destitute, just at 
the opening of the crop, owing to the large amount of brood 
they were raising, have been known to harvest twenty 
pounds, and more, in one day. When bees are thus gath- 
ering large quantities of honey, and the combs are becom- 
ing crowded, so that the cells, from which the young bees 



PREVENTION OF NATURAL SWARMING. 233 

hatch, are filled with honey as fast as they are vacated, they 
feel the necessity of emigrating, especially as the constant 
hatching workers add daily to their large population. The 
building of additional combs, by a part of the bees, is some- 
times insufficient to keep them from making preparations 
for swarming, as it does not give employment to all. The 
reader must remember that in a good colony, at this season, 
there are between 50,000 and 120,000 bees, according to 
the laying capacity of the queen and the size of the breed- 
ing room. There is also an additional increase over mor- 
tality of perhaps 2,000 bees daily. In spite of the admira- 
ble order of these wonderful little insects, there cannot help 
be more or less crowding, unless there is ample room iu the 
combs. 

455. If some of the bees decide that they are too 
crowded, queen-cells are raised (104) and the colon}^ gets 
what Apiarists call the " sivarming fever." It is a very ap- 
propriate name indeed, since the so-called fever is cured 
only by swarming. In some extraordinary seasons, after 
this " swarming fever" has taken possession of their little 
brains, no amount of room given, even by dividing (470) 
will prevent them from executing their purpose, unless the 
weather and the honey crop become unfavorable. We have 
repeatedly, in such seasons, divided a colony into several 
nuclei (520) without avail, each nucleus swarming in spite 
of its weakness. 

456. 2d. The heat of the Summer sun, which alone would 
not cause them to swarm, hastens their preparations, when 
the bees are disposed to emigrate. 

457. 3d. The hatching of a great number of drones 
(189) — due to an excess of drone-comb (224) in the brood 
chamber, in which the queen has deposited egg3, — is also 
an incitation to the " swarming fever." These big, burly, 
noisy fellows help to make the already crowded comb quite 
uncomfortable. This is why a great many bee-keepers of 



234 NATURAL SWARMING. 

the old school report having noticed that hives which raise 
the most drones cast the greatest number of swarms. 

458. 4th. An improperly ventilated hive (336), or 
surplus arrangement, strongly induces natural swarming. 
We have seen ignorant bee-keepers, owners of box-hives 
wonder why their bees swarmed and did not work in the 
surplus honey receptacle. The average box-hive (274) is 
made about twelve inches square inside, often with only a 
shallow entrance a couple of inches long, at the bottom, and 
the surplus arrangement is reached by the bees, through an 
auger-hole an inch or two in diameter. In order to venti- 
late the honey receptacle, the bees have to form a line (61) 
from the outside of the hive through the thickly covered 
combs to this hole, and force in air enough to enable them 
to breathe and live there. How can we wonder that they 
refuse to work in such a place, especially when the hive is 
exposed to the heat of the sun in a June afternoon? 

Under such circumstances, hordes of useless consumers 
often blacken, for months, the outside of the hives, to the 
great loss of their disappointed owners. 

459. 1st. It results from the above that the principal con- 
dition for the prevention of natural swarming is, a sufficient 
amount of empty comb, and this empty comb must be given 
in an easily accessible place near and above, or in front of 
the brood. 

The giving of comb foundation (674) instead of empty 
combs, will be sufficient if the crop is not flowing too 
fast. But in a very good season, if the harvesting workers 
bring the honey faster than the young bees can stretch the 
foundation into comb, it will not be sufficient. 

460. If the breeding story is full of comb, and the sur- 
plus arrangement is placed above with a wooden division 
or honey board (352) between, the bees will often con- 
sider the latter as too remote from their breeding room, 
especially if the holes which connect the two are few, and 



PREVENTION OP NATURAL SWARMING. 235 

ventilation cannot be readily given from one apartment to 
another. 

461. The giving of combs in a place of easy access, must 
be attended to, just before the crop begins, or the bees may 
make preparations which would render all later enlargements 
of the hive completely useless, as far as prevention of swarming 
is concerned. The breeding room must be large enough to ac- 
commodate the most prolific queen (155). 

462. 2nd. The hive must be located where the sun will 
not strike it directly in the hottest hours of the day. It can 
easily be sheltered artificially with a roof, if there is no 
shrubbery around it (369). 

463. 3d. The drone-comb must be carefully removed, in 
Spring, as far as possible, and replaced by worker-comb 
(675). It is impossible to remove every cell of drone- 
comb, but a few drones will not hurt. It is the excess, the 
breeding of thousands of drones which is objectionable, and 
an incentive to swarming. The removal of drone-comb is 
highly advisable for other reasons (512). 

464. 4th. The hive should be thoroughly ventilated, so 
that the bees will find themselves comfortable in it. 

465. This system, which gives the smallest possible 
number of swarms, and the largest possible amount of sur- 
plus-honey, was inaugurated by us, years ago, and has been 
adopted on both continents. Mr. Cowan, the worthy editor 
of the British Bee- Journal, says of it, page 148, April 1886, 
"Hives managed in this way, will give the maximum of 
honey with the least amount of labor." 

If the above directions are followed, the natural swarms 
will not exceed three to five per cent. These swarms will 
be very large — Mr. DeLayens once had a swarm weighing 
11J lbs — and after-swarms will be scarce. The few hives 
that swarm are those which, having old queens, attempt to 
replace them during the swarming season (499), or those 
whose queens die while the crop is abundant. 



236 NATURAL SWARMING. 

In the first case, one or more young queens being raised in 
the hive, it often happens that the old queen tries to destroy 
them; the bees prevent her (112), and swarmiug is the 
result. The same reason may cause swarming in a strong 
colony, in which a queen has been introduced (533) by 
the Apiarist, during a good yield of honey. Perhaps the 
bees accept her "under protest" and soon begin raising 
queen-cells (104) to replace her, but the abundant honey 
harvest causes them to change their preparations, and they 
swarm with this introduced queen. A hive which has been 
made queenless during the honey crop, may swarm for the 
same reasons (443), as soon as the young queens are old 
enough. 

466. The prevention of natural swarming, when comb- 
honey is raised in sections (721), is not so successful, 
because the Apiarist cannot furnish his bees with empty 
combs. But very good results can be obtained, by follow- 
ing as nearly as possible all the directions above given. 

467. As the queen cannot get through an opening ^ 
of an inch high — which will just pass a loaded worker, if the 
entrance to the hive be contracted to this dimension, she 
will not be able to leave with a swarm. 

This is done with drone or queen-traps, perforated zinc, 
entrance-blocks, and other fixtures. (See Drone- trap, 191). 

This method of preventing swarming requires great accur- 
acy of measurement, for a very trifling deviation from the 
dimensions given, will either shut out the loaded workers, or 
let out the queen. It should be used only to imprison old 
queens ; for } r oung ones, if confined to the hive, cannot be 
impregnated (120). These fixtures, if firmly fastened, will 
exclude mice from the hive in the Winter. When used to 
prevent all swarming, it will be necessary to adjust them a 
little after sunrise and before sunset, to take out, or allow- 
the bees to cany out any drones that have died. 

We have seen colonies kill their queen, and raise an- 




PREVENTION OF NATURAL SWARMING. 237 

other, because she had thus been unable to follow the swarm, 
hence, these appliances will do only in small Apiaries, 
where bee-keepers can examine each colony daily ; and 
even there, we would not advise their constant use. 

Mr. Langstroth had formerly 
devised a non-swarmer block, with 
a metallic slide, to prevent the es- 
cape of the queen. This was aban- 
doned, because it annoyed the ¥is - 88 - 
bees and interfered with ventila- non-swarmer block. 

tion (333), as all SUCh arrange- It is shown attached on the hive 
V " & in Fig. 56. 

ments do. 

468. After-swarms have been prevented from issuing, by 
a method invented bj T Jas. Heddon, who is one of the noted 
and successful Apiarists of Michigan. The Heddon method 
consists in placing the first swarm, side by side with the 
parent hive, and one week after the issue of the swarm, or 
just previous to the expected departure of the second swarm, 
removing the parent hive to a new location, thus giving all 
its old bees to the first swarm. This is virtually preventing 
a natural issue by a forced issue, but making the first swarm 
strong, at the expense of the mother colony. The sole ob- 
jection to this method is that it does away only with the 
annoyance of catching the swarm, and leaves the parent 
colony much weakened. 



238 ARTIFICIAL SWARMING. 



CHAPTER VII. 

ARTIFICIAL SWARMING. 

469. Every practical bee-keeper is aware of the uncer- 
tainty of natural swarming (406). Under no circumstan- 
ces, can it be confidently relied on. While some colonies 
swarm repeatedly, others, apparently as strong in numbers, 
and rich in stores, refuse to swarm, even in seasons in all 
respects highly propitious. Such colonies, on examination, 
will often be found to have taken no steps for raising young 
queens. Besides, it frequently happens that, when all the 
preparations have been made for swarming, the weather 
proves so inclement that the young queens approach 
maturity before the old ones can leave, and are all destroyed. 
Under such circumstances, swarming, for that season, is 
almost certain to be prevented. The young queens are also 
sometimes destroyed, because of some sudden, and perhaps 
only temporal, suspension of the honey-harvest ; for bees 
seldom colonize, even if all their preparations are completed, 
unless the blossoms are yielding an abundant supply of 
honey. 

The numerous perplexities pertaining to natural swarm- 
ing, have, for ages, directed the attention of cultivators to 
the importance of devising some more reliable method for 
increasing the number of their colonies. 

Dr. Scudamore quotes Columella as giving directions for 
making artificial swarms. Although he taught how to fur- 
nish a queen to a destitute colon}-, and how to transfer 
brood-comb, with maturing bees, from a strong stock to a 
weak one, he does not appear to have formed entirely new 
colonies by any artificial process. His treatise on bee-keep- 



ITS ANTIQUITY. 239 

ing shows not only that he was well acquainted with previ- 
ous writers on the subject, but that he was also a successful 
practical Apiarist. Its precepts, with but few exceptions, 
are truly admirable, and prove that in his time bee-keep- 
ing, with the masses, must have been far in advance of what 
it was fifty years ago. 

We have spoken of the bar-hive, (282) as at least 
two hundred years old. From " A Journey into Greece, by 
George Wheeler, Esq.," made in 1675-6, it appears that it 
was, at that time, in common use there, and, probably, 
even then an old invention ; he described its uses in 
forming artificial swarms, and removing spare honey. As 
the new swarms were made by dividing the combs between 
two hives, and no mention is made of giving the queenless 
one a royal cell, those old observers were probably acquain- 
ted with the fact that they could rear one from the worker- 
brood. Huber says : — " Monticelli, a Neapolitan Professor, 
claims that the plan of artificial swarming was borrowed 
from Favignana, and that the practice is so ancient that 
even the Latin names are preserved by the inhabitants in 
their procedure." 

470. Huber, after his splendid discoveries in the physi- 
ology of the bee, felt the need of some way of multiplying 
colonies, more reliable than that of natural swarming. He 
recommends forming artificial swarms, by dividing one of 
the hives, and adding six empty frames to each half. 

"Dividing-hives," (278-279) of various kinds, have 
been used in this country. The principle seems to have all 
the elements of success ; but it was ascertained, that, how- 
ever modified, such hives are all practically worthless for 
purposes of artificial increase. 

It is one of the laws of the hive, that bees which have no 
mature queen, seldom build any cells except such as are de- 
signed merely for storing honey, and are too large for the 
rearing of workers (228). 



240 ARTIFICIAL SWARMING. 

471. Messrs. Langstroth and Dzierzon were the first ob- 
servers who had noticed the bearing of this remarkable fact 
on artificial increase. It may, at first, seem unaccountable 
that bees should build only comb unfit for breeding, when 
their young queen will so soon require worker- cells for her 
eggs ; but it must be borne in mind, that at such times they 
are in an "abnormal" condition. In a state of nature, 
they seldom swarm until their hive is full of comb ; or if 
they do, their numbers are so reduced, that they are rarely 
able to resume comb-building, until the young queen has 
hatched. 

The determination of bees having no mature queen, to 
build comb designed only for storing honey, and unfit for 
rearing workers, shows very clearly the folly of attempting 
to multiply colonies by dividing-hives, unless the greater 
part of the bees are given to the queen, and the greater part 
of the combs to the queenless half. 

When the queenless part proceeds to supply her loss, if it 
has bees enough to build new comb, it will build such as is 
designed only for storing honey. The next year, if this 
hive is divided, one-half will contain nearly all the brood, 
while the other, having most of its combs fit only for storing 
honey, or raising drones, will be a complete failure. 

So uniformly do bees with an unhatched queen build 
coarse, or drone-comb, that often a glance at the combs of 
a new colony, will show either that it is queenless, or that, 
having been so, it has just reared a new queen (229). 

472. Some Apiarists have attempted to multiply their 
colonies, by removing, when thousands of its inmates are 
ranging the fields, a strong stock to a new stand, and setting 
in its place an empty hive, with a frame of brood-comb, suit- 
able for raising a queen. This method is still worse than 
the one just described. One half of the dividing-hive was 
filled with breeding comb, while this empty hive having next 
to none, all that is built before the queen hatches, will be 



VARIOUS METHODS. 241 

of a size unsuitable for rearing workers. The queenless 
part of the divided hives might also have contained a young 
queen almost mature, so that the building of large combs 
would have quickly ceased ; for it is not always necessary that 
a queen should have commenced laying eggs to induce her 
colony to build worker-cells ; we have known a strong swarm 
with a virgin queen, to build beautiful worker-comb, before 
a single egg was deposited in the cells. 

When a new colony is formed by dividing the old hive, 
the queenless part has thousands of cells filled with brood 
and eggs, and young bees will be hatching for at least three 
weeks : by this time, the young queen will ordinarily be 
laying eggs, so that there will be an interval of not more 
than three weeks, during which the colony will receive no 
accessions. But when a new swarm is formed, in the way 
above described, not an egg will be laid for nearly three 
weeks, and not a bee hatched for nearly six. During all 
this time, the colony will rapidly decrease,* and by the time 
the progeny of the young queen begins to mature, the new 
hive will have so few bees, that it would seldom be of any 
value, even if its combs were of the best construction (182.) 

473. One strong forced swarm, can be obtained in any 
style of hive, including box-hives, by the driving process 
(574 to 577) as follows : When it is time to form artifi- 
cial colonies, we mean a few days before swarming time, or 
as soon as the hives are about full of bees, — drum a strong 
stock — which call A — so as to secure all its bees. 

They may be driven either into a forcing box, or into the 
upper story of a movable frame hive, and hived like a new 
swarm, when, if placed on their old stand, they will work as 
vigorously as a natural swarm. If they were driven, at first, 

* Every observing bee-keeper has noticed how rapidly even a large swarm 
diminishes in number, for the first three weeks after it has been hived. So 
great is the mortality of bees during the height of the working-season, that 
often, in less than that time ; it does not contain one half its original number. 



242 ARTIFICIAL SWARMING. 

into a hive which will suit the Apiarist, it may be returned 
to their old location, without disturbing the bees. 

If any bees are abroad when this is done, they will join 
this new colony. Remove to a new stand in the Apiary a 
second strong stock — which call B — -and put A in its place. 

Thousands of the bees that belong to B, as they return 
from the fields, will enter A, which thus secures enough to 
develop the brood, and rear a new queen. In fact, this 
colony often becomes so strong, by the help of the field 
workers of B, as well as through its own constantly hatching 
bees, that there is some danger of its casting off a swarm 
when the first young queen hatches, unless again divided at 
that time. 

474. It is quite amusing to observe the actions of the 
bees that return to their old stand, when their homes have 
been exchanged as above. 

If the strange hive is like their own in size and outward 
appearance, they go in as though all was right, but soon 
rush out in violent agitation, imagining that by some unac- 
countable mistake, they have entered the wrong place. 
Taking wing to correct their blunder, they find, to their 
increasing surprise, that they had directed their flight to the 
proper spot ; again they enter, and again they tumble out, in 
bewildered crowds, until at length, if they find a queen or 
the means of raising one, they make up their minds that if 
the strange hive is not home, it looks like it, stands where it 
ought to be, and is, at all events, the only home they are 
likely to get. No doubt they often feel that a very hard 
bargain has been imposed upon them, but they are generally 
wise enough to make the best of it. They will be altogether 
too much disconcerted to quarrel with any bees that were 
left in the hive when it was forced, and these on their part 
give them a welcome reception, especially if they come in 
with a heavy load. 

This method of artificial swarming will not weaken either 



VARIOUS METHODS. 243 

of the mother-colonies. If B had been first forced, and 
then removed, it would have been seriously injured ; but as 
it loses fewer bees than if it had swarmed, and retains its 
queen, it will soon become almost as powerful as before it 
was removed. 

The Apiarist, by treating a natural swarm as he has been 
directed to treat a forced one, can secure an increase of one 
colony from two ; and of all the methods of conducting nat- 
ural swarming, in regions where rapid increase is not profi- 
table, this is the best, provided the colonies do not stand too 
close together, and the hives used in the process are some- 
what similar in shape and color. 

475. Whenever the bee-keeper learns how to handle 
the movable-frames safely he must dispense with the forcing- 
box, and make his swarms by lifting out the frames from the 
parent-stock, and shaking the bees from them, by a quick 
jerking motion, upon a sheet, directly in front of the new 
hive. 

If the hive contains much fresh honey, which is usually 
very thin, the bees must be brushed off, for shaking them 
off would also shake out a large amount of nectar (247). 

As soon as a comb is deprived of its bees, it should be 
returned to the parent-stock. If one or two combs contain- 
ing brood, eggs, and stores, are given to the forced swarm, 
it will be much encouraged, and will need no feeding (605) 
if the weather should be unfavorable. In removing the 
frames, the bee-keeper should look for the queen, and give 
the comb she is on, to the forced swarm, without shak- 
ing off the bees. If he does not see her on the combs, 
he will seldom after a little practice, fail to notice her, as 
she is shaken on the sheet, and crawls towards the new hive. 
The queen is seldom left on a frame after it has been shaken 
so that most of the bees fall off (439). 

476. The more combs with brood are taken from A, the 
less chance it^vill have to send forth a natural swarm with 
its first hatched queen. 



244 ARTIFICIAL SWARMING. 

If it is desirable to make a large number of swarms, and 
the parent colony is strong in hatching bees, only a few of 
the combs need be shaken in front of the new hive contain- 
ing the queen, and the parent colony, with the adhering 
young bees, may be set in a new place. 

By this method, one swarm is made from each of the 
hives set apart for increase, and although the colonies 
thus divided are not so strong as when one swarm is made 
from two hives ; yet, in ordinary localities and seasons, 
they become strong enough for all purposes, long before 
the season is over, especially if young queens are introduced 
(533) in the colonies made queenless, and comb-founda- 
tion is used in full sheets in the frames (674). 

477. If the mother-colony has not been supplied with a 
fertile queen, it cannot for a long time part with another 
swarm, without being seriously weakened. 

Second-swarming, as is well known, often very much in- 
jures the parent-stock, although its queens are rapidly ma- 
turing ; but the forced mother-stock may have to start them 
almost from the egg. By giving it a fertile (533) queen, 
and retaining enough adhering bees to develop the brood, 
another swarm may be taken away in ten or twelve daj^s in 
a good season, and the mother-stock left in a far better con- 
dition than if it had parted with two natural swarms. In 
favorable seasons and localities, this process may be re- 
peated two or three times, at intervals of ten days, and if 
no combs are removed, the mother-stock will still be well 
supplied with brood and mature bees. Indeed, the judi- 
cious removal of bees, at proper* intervals, often leaves it, 
at the close of the Summer, better supplied than non-swarm- 

*If a stock of bees, in a hive of moderate size, is examined, at the height of 
the honey-harvest, nearly all the cells will often he found full of brood, honey, 
or bee-bread . The great laying of the queen is over— not as some imagine, be- 
cause her fertility has decreased, but simply for waut of room for more brood. 
A queen in such a colony, or in a hive having few bees, often appears almost 
as slender as one still unfertile; but if she has plenty of bees and empty comb 
given her, her proportions will soon become very much enlarged. 



VARIOUS METHODS. 245 

ing stocks with maturing brood ; the latter having — in the 
expressive language of an old writer — ' ' waxed over fat. ' ' 

We have had stocks which, after parting with four swarms 
in the way above described, have stored their hives with Fall 
honey, besides yielding a surplus in boxes. 

This method of artificial increase, which resembles natural 
swarming, in not taking away the combs of the mother-stock, 
is not only superior to it, in leaving a fertile queen, but ob- 
viates almost entirely all risk of after-swarming ; for the 
forced swarm, containing the old queen, seldom attempts to 
send forth a new colony, and the parent hive, in which the 
young queen is placed, is too destitute of field-workers to 
swarm soon. The young queen herself is equally content — 
except in very warm climates, or in extraordinary seasons 
— to stay where she is put. Even if the old queen is al- 
lowed to remain in the mother-stock, she will seldom leave, 
if sufficient room is given for storing surplus honey ; and it 
makes no difference — as far as liability of swarming is con- 
cerned — where the young one is put. 

478. Artificial increase may be also made, by simply 
giving several frames of hatching bees to a nucleus (520) 
containing a fertile queen, and placing the colony thus built 
up on the stand of a strong hive, removing the latter to a 
new location. 

If, from some cause, the parent-colony could not be 
moved, the forced swarm might be made to adhere to a new 
location as follows : Secure their queen, when the bees are 
shaken out of the hive ; and when they show that they miss 
her, confine them to their hive, until their agitation has 
reached its height. Then open the hive, and as the bees 
begin to take wing, present their queen to them. When 
they have clustered around her, they may be treated like a 
natural swarm. To do this with every forced swarm would 
take too much time ; but it would answer well when the 
forced swarm is to be moved, a short distance. 



246 ARTIFICIAL SWARMING. 

479. If no queens have been raised previously (514), 
by making a few forced swarms, from select colonies (513), 
nine daj-s before the time in which the most are to be made, 
there will be an abundance of sealed queens, almost mature, 
so that ever} T parent-stock may have one. If the forced 
swarms were made a short time before natural swarming 
would have taken place, some of the parent-colonies will 
contain a number of maturing queens, which may be re- 
moved, a few da} T s before hatching, and given to such as 
have started none. But it is far better to rear the queens 
first, as they can be bred from choice stock (513). 

480. A nucleus (520) may be built up after its queen 
has commenced laying, by helping it with a comb of brood 
and young bees, from a full colony, adding, at proper 
intervals, a third, and a fourth, until they are strong enough 
to take care of themselves. This mode of increase is labo- 
rious, and requires skill and judgment ; for, the bee-keeper 
should be very careful never to give a weak colony more 
brood than its bees can cover, remembering that, should 
the temperature become colder, the brood might be chilled 
and perish. 

As a number of nuclei are to be simultaneously strength- 
ened, the Apiarist cannot complete his artificial processes 
by a single operation, and must always be on hand, or 
incur the risk of ending the season with a number of starv- 
ing colonies. For these and other reasons, we much prefer 
the other methods, above given, dispensing with so much 
opening of hives and handling of combs. If, however, any 
of the new colonies are weak enough to need k, they must 
be helped to combs from stronger ones. 

481. Whatever method of artificial increase is pursued by 
the Apiarist, he should never reduce the strength of his 
mother-stocks, so as seriously to cripple the reproductive power 
of their queens. This principle should be to him as t; the 
law of the Medes and Persians, which altereth not ;" for, 



VARIOUS METHODS. 247 

while a queen, with an abundance of worker- comb and 
bees, may, in a single season, become the parent of a num- 
ber of prosperous families, if her colony, at the beginning 
of the swarming season, is divided into three or four parts, 
not one of them will ordinarily acquire stores enough to 
survive the Winter. 

The practical bee-keeper should remember that no drone- 
comb is built when the queen is with the builders (224), 
and that the less increase he takes, from the colonies on 
which he relies for surplus-honey, the better. 

482. With the movable-frame hive, and the improved 
system, the Apiarist, by raising his queens or queen-cells 
(514) previously (and this is very important) can take the 
increase that he wishes to make, from colonies that ivould 
have produced little, if any, surplus, and preserve his best col- 
onies for honey production. Let it not be understood by 
this, that we advise taking the increase from weak colonies. 
In every Apiary, there are some colonies, which, though of 
fair strength, do not become populous in time to harvest 
more than their supply. Such colonies can furnish good 
swarms, with but little help, owing to the fact that the 
greater number of their bees raised during the harvest, 
instead of before it, are too young to go to the field (162). 

If our method is followed, the colonies, which have been 
kept for honey production, can furnish help, if necessary, 
towards the end of the season, for those of the artificial 
swarms that need it. 

To the prudent Apiarist, they are as a reserve body of 
select troops to the skillful general, a timely help, in an 
emergency. 

Remember that populous colonies, that are raising queen- 
cells, during the early part of a good honey harvest, are 
strongly inclined to swarm when the young queens hatch. 
(465.) 

483. The colonies that are raising young queens, either 



248 ARTIFICIAL SWARMING. 

from worker-brood or from queen-cells given them, must be 
well supplied with honey, must have enough young bees to 
keep the brood warm and to take care of it, and no comb- 
building to do (224). 

One artificial swarm made at the opening of the honey 
harvest, when the hive is full of brood, is better than two 
swarms made at its close. 

When new colonies are made by purchasing queens 
(594) with bees by the pound (599), shipped from a dis- 
tance (587), they should be hived on as many combs of 
brood, taken from other hives, as they can well cover. If 
full frames of foundation (674) are added, from time to 
time, strong colonies may be built out of them, quite 
readily. 

If the colonies are gathering much honey, when artificial 
swarms are made, but little smoke (382) will be needed 
in the operations. The frequent use of smoke makes the 
queen leave the combs, for greater security. This often 
causes great delay in the formation of artificial swarms by 
removing the frames, and in operations where it is desira- 
ble to catch the queen, or to examine her upon the comb. 

484. Artificial operations of all kinds are most successful 
when bee-forage is abundant; when it is scarce, they are 
quite precarious, even if the colonies are well supplied with 
food. 

When bees are not busy in honey-gathering, they have 
leisure to ascertain the condition of weak colonies, which 
are almost certain to be robbed, if they are incautiously 
opened. When forage is scarce, the Apiarist who does not 
guard against robbing (664) will seriously impair the value 
of his colonies, and entail upon himself much useless and 
vexatious labor. Beware of demoralizing bees, by tempting 
them to rob one another. 

485. During a good honey flow, bees from different hives 
may be mixed without quarrelling, owing to their more peacea- 



VARIOUS METHODS. 249 

ble disposition, when full of honey, hence all manipulations 
become much easier. But at other times, great caution is 
requisite not only in giving a hive a strange queen, but in 
all attempts to mix bees belonging to different colonies. Bees 
having a fertile queen will often quarrel with those having 
an unimpregnated one. 

Members of different colonies (30) recognize their hive- 
companions by the sense of smell, and if there should be a 
thousand hives in the Apiary, any one will readily detect 
a strange bee ; just as each mother in a large flock of sheep 
is able, by the same sense, in the darkest night, to distin- 
guish her own lamb from all the others. Colonies might 
always be safely mingled, by sprinkling them with sugar- 
water, scented with peppermint or any other strong odor, 
which would make them all smell alike. 

Bees also recognize strangers by their actions, even when 
they have the same scent ; for a frightened bee curls herself 
up with a cowed look, which unmistakably proclaims that 
she is conscious of being an intruder. If, therefore, the 
bees of one colony are left on their oivn stand, and the oth- 
ers are suddenly introduced, in a time of scarcity, the 
latter, even when both colonies have the same smell, are 
often so frightened that they are discovered to be strangers, 
and are instantly killed. If, however, both colonies are re- 
moved to a new stand, and shaken out together on a sheet, 
they will peaceably mingle, when scented alike. We find 
substantially the same thing recommended, in 1778, by 
Thomas Wildman (page 230 of the 3d edition of his valua- 
ble work on Bees), who says, that bees will " unite while in 
fear and distress, without fighting, as they would be apt to 
do, if strange bees were added to a hive in possession of its 
honey." 

486. The forcing of a swarm ought not to be attempted 
when the weather is cool, nor after dark. Bees are always 
much more irascible when their hives are disturbed after it 



250 ARTIFICIAL SWARMING. 

is dark, and as they cannot see where to fly, they will alight 
on the person of the bee-keeper, who is almost sure to be 
stung. It is seldom that night work is attempted upon 
bees, without making the operator repent his folly. 

487. We would strongly dissuade any but the most ex- 
perienced Apiarists, from attempting, at the furthest, to do 
more than double their colonies in one year. It would take 
another book to furnish directions for rapid multiplica- 
tion, sufficiently full and explicit for the inexperienced ; 
and even then, most who should undertake it, would be 
sure, at first, to fail. With ten strong colonies of bees, in 
movable-comb hives, in oue propitious season, we could so 
increase them, in a favorable location, as to have, on the 
approach of Winter, one hundred good colonies ; but we 
should expect to purchase queens, foundation, and perhaps 
hundreds of pounds of honey, devoting much of our time 
to their management, and bringing to the work the experi- 
ence of many years, and the judgment acquired by numer- 
ous lamentable failures. 

In one season, being called from home after our colonies 
had been greatly multiplied, the honey harvest was sud- 
denly cut short by a drought, and we found, on our return, 
that most of our stocks were ruined by starvation. 

The time, care, skill, and food required in our uncertain 
climate for the rapid increase of colonies, are so great, that 
not one bee-keeper in a hundred* can make it profitable; 
while most who attempt it, will be almost sure, at the close 
of the season, to find themselves in possession of colonies 
which have been managed to death. 

A certain rather than a rapid multiplication of colonies, is 
most needed. A single colony, doubling every year, would, 
in ten years, increase to 1,024 colonies, and in twenty 

* Many a person who reads this will probably imagine that he is the one in a 
hundred. 



VARIOUS METHODS. 251 

years to over a million!* At this rate, our whole country 
might, in a few years, be over-stocked with bees ; and even 
an increase of one-third, annual^, would soon give us 
enough. 

488. All the methods of increase above given, and sev- 
eral others of less importance, were described by Mr. 
Langstroth years ago. He never hesitated to sacrifice sev- 
eral colonies, in order to ascertain a single fact ; and it 
would require a large volume, to detail his various experi- 
ments on the single subject of artificial swarming. The 
practical bee-keeper, however, should never lose sight of 
the important distinction between an Apiary managed prin- 
cipally for purposes of observation and discovery, and one 
conducted exclusively with reference to pecuniary profit. f 
Any bee-keeper can easily experiment with movable-frame 

* The following calculation of possible profits from bee-culture, taken from 
" Sydserff's Treatise on Bees," published in England, in 1792, is a perfect 
gem of its kind : 

' ' Suppose a swarm of bees at the first to cost 10s. 6d. , and neither them nor 

the swarms to be taken , but to do well, and swarm once every year" — bees 

must be naughty, indeed, if they dare to do otherwise! — " what will be the 

product for four teen years, and what the profit, if each hive is sold at 10s. 6d.? 

Years, Hijes. Profits. 

£ s. d 

I 1 

2 2 110 

3 4 2 2 

4 8 4 4 



14 8192 4300 16 

" N.B.— Deduct 10s. 6d., what the first hive cost, and the remainder will 
be clear profit; supposing the second swarms to pay for hives, labor, etc." 
The modesty with which this writer, who seems to have had as much faith in 
his bees as in the doctrine that ' ' figures cannot lie, " closes his calculation at 
the end of fourteea'years, is truly refreshing. No bee-keeper, on such a royal 
road to wealth, could ever find it in his heart to stop under twenty-one years, 
by which time, probably, he would be willing to close his bee-business, by 
selling it for over two and three-quarter millions of dollars! The attention 
of all venders of humbug bee-hives, is respectfully invited to this antique 
specimen of the art of puffing. 

f Professor Siebold says, that Berlepsch told him, that some of his hives 
' ' had been very much prejudiced by the various scientific experiments. " 



252 ARTIFICIAL SWARMING. 

hives ; but he should do it, at first, only on a small scale, 
and if pecuniary profit is his object, should follow our di- 
rections, until he is sure that he has discovered others which 
are better. These cautions are given to prevent serious 
losses in using hives which, by facilitating all manner of 
experiments, may tempt the inexperienced into rash and 
unprofitable courses. Beginners, especially, should follow 
the directions here given as closely as possible ; for, although 
they may doubtless be modified and improved, it can only 
be done by those experienced in managing bees. 

Let us not be understood as wishing to intimate that per- 
fection has been so nearly attained, that no more important 
discoveries remain to be made. On the contrary, we be- 
lieve that apiculture is a growing science. Those who 
have time and means should experiment on a large scale 
with the movable-comb hives ; and we hope that every intel- 
ligent bee-keeper who uses them, will experiment, at least, 
on a small scale. In this way, we may hope that those 
points in the natural history of the bee still involved in 
doubt, will, ere long, be satisfactorily explained. 

There is a large class of bee-keepers — not " bee-masters" 
—who desire a hive which will give them, however ignorant 
or careless, a large yield of honey from their bees. They 
are easily captivated by the shallowest devices, and spend 
their money and destroy their bees, to fill the purses of un- 
principled men. There never will be a " royal road " to 
profitable bee-keeping. Like all other branches of rural 
economy, it demands care and experience ; and those who 
are conscious of a strong disposition to procrastinate and 
neglect, will do well to let bees alone, unless the} 7 hope, by 
the study of their systematic industry, to reform evil habits 
which are well nigh incurable. 



QUEEN REARING. 253 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Queen Rearing. 

489. We have shown (109) that when a colony is de- 
prived of its queen, the bees soon raise another, if they 
have worker eggs or young larvae. 

In general, they select, first, some of the oldest among 
those whose milky "pap" has not yet been changed for 
coarser food (107). Such a selection is wise, for the older 
the larva is, the sooner the colony will recover a queen. 

490. But some Apiarists fear that the bees will secure 
poorer queens, if they use larvae, for they suppose that the 
food given to these during the first three days, may be dif- 
ferent from the food given to the queen-larvae, although it 
looks the same, and for this reason, they prefer to raise 
their queens, from the egg. 

491. A learned bee-keeper, of Switzerland, Mr. De 
Planta, has made comparative chemical experiments, on the 
milky food which is first given to the larvae of drones, queens, 
and workers, and has ascertained that this food is composed 
of the same substances for all, albumen, fat, sugar, and 
water, and that the only difference is in the proportions of 
these substances. Yet he concludes that these variations 
are but accessory, and not premeditated by the bees. 

We think that these conclusions are right, for Mr. De 
Planta, to get a sufficient quantity of this food, had to take 
it from different hives, and at different seasons of the year ; 
and as this milky food is apparently the product of glands, 
(64), as is the milk of our cows, the proportions of sub- 
stances in the u milk " of bees, may vary, as they do in the 
milk of cows, which contains more or less caseine, fat, sugar, 



254 PREVENTION OF NATURAL SWARMING. 

or water, according to the race, the age, and the food eaten. 

492. Other bee-keepers suppose that the newly-hatched 
larvae, intended by the bees to be raised as queens, are more 
plentifully fed from the first, than worker- larvae. But we 
have always noticed, that, except during a scarcity, the lat- 
ter have as much of this pap as they can eat, during the 
first three days, since they float on the mill^y food (166). 
The wise bee-keeper can ward against the rearing of poor 
queens, by feeding his bees abundantly, if necessary, a few 
days in advance, and during the queen-breeding. 

493. Lastly, some bee-keepers think that bees sometimes 
use larvae more than three days old, and which consequently, 
have already received coarser food. One of our leaders in 
bee-culture, Mr. Doolittle, writes that one of his colonies 
must have used a larva four and one-half days old, since 
this colony hatched a queen in eight and one-half days, in- 
stead of about ten, as usually (HO). (Cook's Guide, pages 
70 and 72). But we cannot admit that the nurses were 
guilty of such blunder, especially since they would have had 
the trouble of replacing with better food, the coarse pap 
already given. Most likely, some already constructed 
queen-cell had passed unnoticed. Every one of us, old bee- 
keepers, has made similar errors. (See " Deceptive Queen- 
Cells (519)." 

494. The worker-larvae are fed with milky food for three 
days, and with coarse food for the three following days. 
Not only does this coarse food change their organism, but 
it retards their growth, since the queens are mature in six- 
teen days, from the time that the egg is laid (197), while 
the workers do not hatch before twenty-one days, on aver- 
age. Thus the three days of coarse food have prolonged 
the growth five days, or in other words, each day of coarse 
feeding has delayed the maturity forty hours. Therefore, 
if we suppose that bees could, and would use, larvae four 
and one-half days old, queens thus produced would hatch 



QUEEN REARING. 255 

two and one-half days later than those raised from larvae 
three days old. They would consequently hatch in eleven 
and one-half days instead of ten as usual. 

495. If some Apiarists have noticed that their best 
queens were reared during the swarming fever (455), it is 
because the colonies are then in the best conditions to pro- 
duce healthy queens. They have pollen and honey in 
abundance ; as they are numerous, they keep the combs very 
warm ; and, in addition, they have a large number of young 
bees, or nurses, to take care of the larvae (164.) 

496. The following accidental experiment has proved to 
us that most of the old workers are unable to act as nurses. 
Years ago, one of our neighbors moved three colonies of 
bees about half a mile, in the Summer, without taking 
proper precautions ; we were informed the next day, that 
quite a number of the oldest bees had returned, and had 
clustered under an old table. We brought a hive there, 
with a comb containing eggs and young larvae. Thej 7 took 
possession of it, but neglected to raise a queen, and soon 
dwindled away. 

497. By placing the colonies, intended to raise queens, 
in the same condition as to food, heat, and nursing, as dur- 
ing the swarming fever (455), we will raise as good 
queens as are then raised. If, to these conditions, we add 
the selection of brood, from our best queens (315), we 
will greatly improve the quality of our stock. 

For over twenty years, we have used all the precautions 
described above, and, although our queens have never been 
reared from the egg, they are very prolific and long-lived. 
Using hives with ten or eleven large Quinby- frames (340), 
we are enabled to ascertain, beyond doubt, the prolificness 
of our queens. Our preventing swarming (459) enables 
us also to reckon their longevity. 

498. The interposition of the Apiarist, in queen-rearing, 
may be necessary : 



256 QUEEN REARING. 

1st. To supply the loss of a queen in a colony that has 
not the means of raising another (109). 

2d. To breed a superior race of bees (550), or improve 
the present stock (315). 

3d. To provide for the artificial increase of colonies. 
(469.) 

We will study the rearing of queens, in view of these 
requirements ; but as each queen-breeder has his pet method, 
we will give only the main outlines, leaving our readers to 
their own choice, according to their judgment and circum- 
stances. 

Loss of the Queen. 

499. That the Queen-Bee is often lost, and that her col- 
ony will be ruined unless such a calamit} 7 is seasonably 
remedied, ought to be familiar facts to every bee-keeper. 

Queens sometimes die of disease, or old age, when there 
is no brood to supply their loss. Few, however, perish 
under such circumstances ; for, either the bees build royal 
cells, aware of their approaching end, or they die so sud- 
denly as to leave young brood behind them. Queens are 
not only much longer-lived (157) than the workers, but 
are usually the last to perish in any fatal casualty. As 
Tas.nj die of old age, if their death does not occur 
under favorable circumstances, it would cause, yearly, the 
loss of a very large number of colonies. As they sel- 
dom die when their strength is not severe^ taxed in breed- 
ing, drones are usually on hand to impregnate their 
successors. 

500. Young queens are sometimes born with wings so 
imperfect that they cannot fly ; and they are often so injured 
in their contests with each other, or by the rude treatment 
they receive when driven from the royal-cells, that they 
cannot leave the hive for impregnation (123). 



LOSS OF THE QUEEN 257 

501. We have yet, however, to describe under what 
circumstances the majority of hives become queenless. 
More queens, whose loss cannot be supplied by the bees, per- 
ish when they leave the hive to meet the drones, than in all 
other ways. After the departure of the first swarm, the 
mother-stock and all the after-swarms have young queens 
which must leave the hive for impregnation ; their larger 
size and slower flight make them a more tempting prey to 
birds, while others are dashed, by sudden gusts of wind, 
against some hard object, or blown into the water : for, 
with all their queenly dignity, they are not exempt from 
mishaps common to the humblest of their race. 

502. In spite of their caution to mark the position and 
appearance of their habitation, the young queens frequently 
make a fatal mistake, and are destroyed, when attempting to 
enter the wrong hive. 

This accounts for the fact that ignorant bee-keepers, with 
forlorn and rickety hives, no two of which look just alike, 
are sometimes more successful than those whose hives are 
of the best construction. The former — unless their hives 
are excessively crowded — lose but few queens, while the 
latter lose them in almost exact proportion to the taste and 
skill which induced them to make their hives of uniform 
size, shape and color (356). 

503. We first learned the full extent of the danger of 
crowded Apiaries, in the Summer of 1854. To protect our 
hives against extremes of heat and cold, they were ranged, 
side by side, over a trench, so that, through ventilators in 
their bottom-boards, they might receive, in Summer, a 
cooler, and in Winter, a much warmer air, than the exter- 
nal atmosphere. By this arrangement — which failed en- 
tirely to answer its design — many of our colonies became 
queenless, and we soon ascertained under what circumstan- 
ces young queens are ordinarily lost. 

From the great uniformity of the hives in size, shape, 
17 



258 QUEEN REARING. 

color, and height, it was next to impossible for a young 
queen to be sure of returning to her hive. The difficulty 
was increased, from the fact that the ground before the 
trench was free from bushes or trees, and no hive — except 
the two end ones, which did not lose their queens — could 
have its location remembered, from its relative position to 
some external object. Most of the hives thus placed, which 
had young queens, became queenless, although supplied 
with other queens, again and again ; and many, even of the 
workers, were constantly entering hives adjoining their 
own. 

504. If a traveler should be carried, in a dark night, to 
a hotel in a strange city, and on rising in the morning, 
should find the streets filled with buildings precisely like it, 
he would be able to return to his proper place, only by pre- 
viously ascertaining its number, or by counting the houses 
between it and the corner. Such a numbering faculty, 
however, was not given to the queen-bee ; for who, in a 
state of nature, ever saw a dozen or more hollow trees or 
other places frequented by bees, standing close together, 
precisely alike in size, shape, and color, with their entran- 
ces all facing the same way, and at exactly the same height 
from the ground? 

On describing to a friend our observations on the loss of 
queens, he told us that in the management of his hens, he 
had fallen into a somewhat similar mistake. To economize 
room, and to give easier access to his setting hens, he had 
partitioned a long box into a dozen or more separate apart- 
ments. The hens, in returning to their nests, were deceived 
by the similarity of the entrances, so that often one box 
contained two or three unamiable aspirants for the honors 
of maternity, while others were entirely forsaken. Many 
eggs were broken, more were addled, and hardly enough 
hatched to establish one mother as the happy mistress of a 
flourishing family. Had he left his hens to their own in* 



LOSS OF THE QUEEN. 259 

stincts, they would have scattered their nests, and glad- 
dened his eyes with a numerous offspring. 

Every bee-keeper, whose hives are so arranged that the 
young queens are liable to make mistakes, must count upon 
heavy losses. If he puts a number of hives, under circum- 
stances similar to those described, upon a bench, or the 
shelves of a bee-house, he can never keep their number 
good without constant renewal. 

505. The bees are sometimes so excessively agitated 
when their queen leaves for impregnation (120), that they 
exhibit all the appearance of swarming. They seem to 
have an instinctive perception of the dangers which await 
her, and we have known them to gather around her and 
confine her, as though they could not bear to have her 
leave. If a queen is lost on her wedding excursion, the 
bees of an old colony will gradually decline ; those of an 
after-swarm, will either unite with another hive, or dwindle 
away (182). 

506. It would be interesting, could we learn how bees 
become informed of the loss of their queen. When she is 
taken from them under circumstances that excite the whole 
colony, we can easily see how they find it out ; for, as a 
tender mother, in time of danger, is all anxiety for her 
helpless children, so bees, when alarmed, always seek first 
to assure themselves of the safety of their queen. If, how- 
ever, the queen is very carefully removed, several hours 
may elapse before they realize their loss. How do they 
first become aware of it? Perhaps some dutiful bee, anxious 
to embrace her mother, makes diligent search for her 
through the hive. The intelligence that she cannot be 
found being noised abroad, the whole family is speedily 
alarmed. At such times, instead of calmly conversing, by 
touching each other's antennae, they may be seen violently 
striking them together, and by the most impassioned dem- 
onstrations manifesting their agony and despair (181). 



260 QUEEN REARING. 

We once removed the queen of a small colony, the bees 
of which took wing and filled the air, in search of her. 
Although she was returned in a few minutes, royal-cells 
were found two days later. The queen was unhurt, and 
the cells untenanted. Was this work begun by some that 
did not believe the others, when assured that she was safe? 
or from the apprehension that she might be removed again ? 

507. As soon as the bees begin to fly briskly in the 
Spring, a colony which does not industriously gather pollen, 
*or accept of flour (267), is almost certain to have no 
queen, or one that is not fertile — unless it is on the eve of 
perishing from starvation. 

A colony is sure to be queenless, if, after taking its 
first Spring-flight, the bees, by roaming, in an enquiring 
manner in and out of the hive show that some great calamity 
has befallen them. Those that come from the fields, instead 
of entering the hive with that dispatchful haste so character- 
istic of a bee returning, well loaded, to a prosperous home, 
usually linger about the entrance with an idle and dissat- 
isfied appearance, and the colony is restless, late in the day, 
when others are quiet. Their home, like that of a man 
who is cursed in his domestic relations, is a melancholy 
place, and they enter it only with reluctant and slow-mov- 
ing steps. 

508. And here, if permitted to address a word of friendly 
advice, we would say to every wife — Do all that you can to 
make your husband's home a place of attraction. When 
absent from it, let his heart glow at the thought of return- 
ing to its dear enjoyments ; as he approaches it, let his 
countenance involuntarily assume a more cheerful expres- 

*' ' Mr. Randolph Peters, of Philadelphia, had a colony which he was satis- 
fied was queenless, as the bees did not carry in pollen for 28 days . I put a queen 
into the hive, he holding a watch in his hand, and in ?>)i minutes from the time 
she was introduced, a bee was seen to enter with pollen on her legs! We both 
observed the entrance for sonae time, and saw many bees carry in pollen."— 
P. J. Mahan. 



LOSS OF THE QUEEN. 261 

sion, while his joy- quickened steps proclaim that he feels that 
there is no place like the cheerful home where his chosen 
wife and companion presides as its happy and honored 
Queen.* If your home is not full of dear delights, try all 
the virtue of winning words and smiles, and the cheerful 
discharge of household duties, and exhaust the utmost pos- 
sible efficacy of love, and faith, and prayer, before those 
words of fearful agony, 

" Anywhere, anywhere 
Out of the world ! " 

are extorted from your despairing lips, as you realize that 
there is no home for you, until you have passed into that 
habitation not fashioned by human hands, or inhabited by 
human hearts. 

509. The neglect of a colony to expel drones (192), 
when they are destroyed in other hives, is always a suspi- 
cious sign, and generally an indication either that it has no 
queen, or else a drone-laying one (134), or drone-laying 
workers (176). A colony, in these circumstances, will not 
even destroy the drones of other hives, which may come to 
it, until a healthy queen has been raised in the hive, and is 
fertilized (133), and laying worker-eggs. 

510. In opening a queenless hive, the plaintive hum of 
the bees (76), the listless and intermittent vibrating of 
their wings, and the total lack of eggs, or young worker 
brood, tell their condition. 

A comb, with hatching bees,f should be given to it from 

*' ' The tenth and last species of women were made out of a bee; and happy 
is the man who gets such a one for his wife . She is full of virtue and prudence, 
and is the best wife that Jupiter can bestow. " — Spectator, No. 209. 

t That class of bee-keepers who suppose that all such operations are the 
"new fangled" inventions of modern times, will be surprised to learn that Col- 
umella, 1800 years ago, recommended strengthening feeble colonies, by cutting 
out combs from stronger ones, containing workers ' ' just gnawing out of their 
eells." 



262 Queen reading. 

a stronger colony, together with another comb, of eggs and 
larvae, from the best colony in the Apiary ; and the number 
of its combs should be reduced to suit the size of the clus- 
ter. 

A better way yet to supply the loss, is to give the colony 
a queen-cell (104) or a young queen raised in the manner 
to be now described. 



Rearing Improved Races. 



511. We will see (550) that some races of bees are su- 
perior to others. Even in the same Apiary, some colonies 
are better than others, in prolificness, honey-gathering, en- 
durance, gentleness, etc. It is very important to improve 
the Apiary by rearing queens from the best breeds, for the 
increase of colonies, as well as to replace the inferior ones. 

To this end, the bee-keeper should select two or more of 
the best colonies in his Apiary, one for the production of 
drones, the others for the production of queens. Italian 
(551) bees are universally preferred ; and as they are now 
almost as easily found as common bees, and are very cheap, 
we advise the novice to begin with at least two queens of 
this race. 

A slight mixture of Cyprian or Syrian (559) blood is 
good, provided the issue be gentle and peaceable. Hybrids 
of common bees and Italians are generally inferior, both in 
quality and disposition. 

512. In selecting a colony for drone production, the 
color and size of the drones should not be considered so 
much, as the prolificness of its queen, and the qualities of 
its workers, unless you wish to breed for beauty, in prefer- 
ence to honey-production. 

Place two drone-combs (224) in the center of the brood- 
chamber of this colony, as soon as it has recuperated from 



REARING IMPROVED RACES. 263 

its winter losses. If the colony is kept well supplied with 
honey, enough drones will be raised to impregnate all the 
queens in the neighborhood ; otherwise, they might destroy 
these early drones after having raised them. 

If our directions on the removal of drone-comb (675) 
are followed, but few drones will be raised outside of those 
colonies specially intended for drone-breeding. As soon 
as they begin to hatch, we may make preparations for 
queen-rearing, the best time being at the opening of fruit- 
blossoms. Some queen-breeders begin earlier, but early 
breeding gives much trouble and little pay, and our advice 
to Northern Apiarists, who want early queens, is to buy 
them from some reliable Southern Apiarist, as they can be 
raised earlier in the South, much more cheaply than in the 
North. 

513. In an Apiary composed of several colonies, there 
are always some comparatively weak ones, either because 
their queens are old, or because they are not prolific. Such 
queens are of very little value, and should be replaced. 
Select one of these colonies — not the poorest, unless it is 
populous enough to raise good queens. Kill its queen, and 
exchange its brood-combs, after having brushed the bees 
off, for a less number of combs, containing eggs and larvae, 
from your best queen. It may be well to feed the colonies 
containing the select queens beforehand, so as to incite the 
laying of eggs (154) and nursing of the brood. 

514 If you desire to raise queens from eggs, (490), or 
larvae just hatching, prepare for it, by giving your select 
colony some frames of dry comb, or comb foundation, 
(674) a few days ahead, for the queen to lay in. In this 
case, only those combs that contain eggs should be given to 
the queenless colony. It is always better to give but a 
small number of brood-combs to the colony intended for 
queen-raising, and to reduce its space with the division- 
board (349) ; as they can best keep it warm, in this man- 
ner, and raise better queens. 



264 



QUEEN REARING. 



515. The largest number of queeu-cells (104) can be 
obtained by cutting holes into the combs under the cells 
containing young larvae or eggs, and feeding the bees 
plentifully. Some Apiarists hold that, by leaving them 
without brood of any kind for a few hours, they will raise 
more cells afterwards. 

516. Nine days after the furnishing of the brood to the 
queenless colony, count the number of queen-cells raised, 
remembering that one has to be left to the colony that 
raised them. On the same day, make swarms, (475) or 
nuclei, (522) or destroy worthless queens 
(155) which you desire to replace next 
day. 

517. The next day, with a sharp pen- 
knife, carefully remove a piece of comb, 
an inch or more square, that contains a 
queen-cell (Fig. 89), and in one of the 
brood combs of the hive to which this cell 
is to be given, cut a place just large 
enough to receive and hold it in a natural 
position. (Fig. 90.) 

Each queenless stock can thus be supplied with a queen, 




Fig. 89. 

QUEEN-CELL, 

REMOVED. 




Fig. 90. 
(From Gravenhorst.) 

CUTTING OUT AND INSERT- 
ING QUEEN-CELLS. 

A, Unsealed cell . B, Insert- 
ed cell. C, Unfinished cell. 
D, Deceptive cell just be 
gun. 



REARING IMPROVED RACES. 265 

ready to hatch, from the best breeding mother. 

Unless very great care is used in transferring a royal cell, 
its inmates will be destroyed, as her body, until she is nearly 
mature, is so exceedingly soft, that a slight compression of 
her cell — -especially near the base, where there is no cocoon — 
generally proves fatal. For this reason, it is best to defer 
removing them, until they are within three or four days of 
hatching. A queen-cell, nearly mature, may be known by 
its having the wax removed from the lid, by the bees, so as 
to give it a brown appearance. 

518. If the weather is warm, and the hive, to which a 
queen-cell is given, is very populous, the cell may be intro- 
duced by simply inserting it in its natural position between 
two combs of brood. It is very important to have the queen- 
cell in or near the brood, or the bees might neglect it. 

Sometimes, the bees so crowd their royal cells together 
(fig. 91) that it is difficult to remove one without fatally 



it m 

mm, in 



(Fig. 91.) 
CLUSTER OF CELLS. 

(From Alley's Handy- 
Book.) 




injuring another, as, when a cell is cut into, the destruction 
and removal of the larva usually follows. Mr. Alley, by 
his method, given further on (528), found a remedy for 
this. If many queens are to be raised, it 'is well to have a 
new supply of cells started every week o even oftener. 



266 



QUEEN REARING. 



519. A day or two after introducing the queen-cells, the 
Apiarist can ascertain, by examination, whether they have 
been accepted. If they have not been accepted, the cells will 
be found torn open, on the side 

(fig. 92), instead of on the end, 
and the colonies will have begun 
queen-cells of their own brood. 
These queen-cells must be de- 
stroyed and replaced by other ; 
from the next supply. In removing 
them, the greatest en re should be 
taken not to pass the deceptive 
queen-cells, if any are there (fig. 
90), which, although less appar- 
ent, would disappoint the end in 
view. 

520. When queens are raised 
ahead of time for artificial in- 
crease, Italianizing, or for sale, it 
is more profitable to use nuclei in- 
stead of full colonies to hatch these 
queens. The word nuclei (plural 
of nucleus), from the Latin nucleus 
a nut, a kernel, was first applied 
b} T Mr. Langs troth to diminutive 
colonies of bees. This term is 
now universally adopted on both 
continents. 

521. When we were raising 
queens for sale, we had contrived 
a divisible frame (fig. 93) to make 
these nuclei of combs taken from 
full colonies. Our combs could be thus separated in two, 
and used in smaller hives, and in the Fall, these same combs 
were returned to the full colonies. Two small frames are 




(Fig 92 ) 
QUEEN-CELLS. 
, hatched cell; b. sealed cell; 
c, rudimentary cell; d, cell 
toru by the bees. 



NUCLEI. 



267 



more advantageous than one large frame, as they give 
more compactness to the cluster. Besides, these small 
colonies can be built up easily afterwards by coupling the 
frames, and uniting the combs of 3 or 4 nuclei into one 
large hive. 

It is not necessary to have many of these frames in an Api- 
ary, as a few are sufficient to make a number of nuclei, if 
they are placed in the centre of full colonies early in Spring. 




(Fig. 93.) 
DIVISIBLE FRAME. 

Two frames thus made from one standard Langstroth 
frame measure about 8? by 8? inches each, a very conven- 
ient size for nucleus frames. 

In the Fall, a number of nuclei may be united, in a full 
sized hive, on their own combs, by this method. 

522. To make a nucleus, take from a colony, as late in 
the afternoon as there is light enough to do it, a comb con- 
taining worker-eggs, and bees just gnawing out of their cells, 
and put it, with the mature bees that are on it, into an 
empty hive. If there are not bees enough adhering to it, 
to prevent the brood from being chilled during the night, 
more must be shaken into the hive from other combs. If 
the transfer is made so late in the day that the bees are not 
disposed to leave the hive, enough may have hatched, by 



268 QUEEN REARING. 

morning, to supply the place of those which will return to 
the parent stock. 

523. In every case, when a swarm has left its hive for 
another quarter, each bee, as she sallies out, flies with her 
head turned towards it, that by marking the surrounding 
objects, she may find her way back. If, however, the bees 
did not emigrate of their own free will, most of them appear- 
ing to forget, or not knowing, that their location has been 
changed, return to their familiar spot ; for it would seem 

that, 

" A ' bee removed ' against her will, 
Is of the same opinion still." 

Should the Apiarist, ignorant of this fact, place the nu- 
cleus on a new stand without providing it with a sufficient 
number of young bees, it would lose so many of the bees 
which ought to be retained in it, that most of its unsealed 
brood would perish from neglect. 

If the comb used in forcing such a nucleus was removed 
at a time of day when the bees would be likely to return to 
the parent stock, they should be confined to the hive, until 
it is too late for them to leave ; and if the number of bees, just 
emerging from their cells, is not large, the entrance to the 
hive should be closed, until about an hour before sunset of 
the next day but one. The hive containing this small col- 
ony, should be properly ventilated, and shaded — if thin — 
from the intense heat of the sun ; it should always be well 
supplied with honey. The space unoccupied in the hive 
should be separated from the nucleus by a division board 
(349). 

524. Beginners must remember that it is bet er to have 
these small nuclei strong with bees ; but, in giving them 
young bees, care should be taken not to give them the queen. 
If a nucleus is made at mid-day, nearly all the bees given 
to it will be young bees, as the old bees are then in the 
field. 



REARING IMPROVED RACES. 269 

The best manner to add young bees from strange colo- 
nies to weak nuclei, is to shake or brush them, on the apron 
board in front of the entrance, as is done in swarm- 
ing (428). 

525. Hives, or nuclei in which queen-cells are to be in- 
troduced, should be aware of their queenless condition be- 
fore a queen-cell is given them. Hence the necessity of 
preparing them 24 hours previous. 

526. A vigilant eye should be kept upon every colony 
that has not an impregnated queen ; and when its queen is 
about a week old it should be examined, and if she has be- 
come fertile, she will usually be found supplying one of the 
central combs with eggs. If neither queen nor eggs can be 
found, and there are no certain indications that she is lost, 
the hive should be examined a few days later, for some 
queens are longer in becoming impregnated than others, 
and it is often difficult to find an unimpregnated one, on ac- 
count of her adroit way of hiding among the bees. 

As soon as the young queen lays, she may be introduced 
to a queenless colony, or sold, and if qneen-cells are kept 
on hand, another one can be given to the nucleus the next 
day. Thus, nuclei may be made to raise two queens or 
more in a month. 

527. If the queens are to be multiplied rapidly, the 
nuclei must never be allowed to become too much reduced 
in numbers, or to be destitute of brood or honey. With 
these precautions, the oftener their queen is taken from 
them, the more intent they will usually become in supplying 
her loss. 

There is one trait in the character of bees which is wor- 
thy of profound respect. Such is their indomitable energ}^ 
and perseverance, that under circumstances apparently 
hopeless, they labor to the utmost to retrieve their losses, 
and sustain the sinking State. So long as they have a 
queen, or any prospect of raising one, they struggle vigor- 



270 



QUEEN REARING. 



ously against impending ruin, and never give up until their 
condition is absolutely desperate. We once knew a colony 
of bees not large enough to cover a piece of comb four inches 
square, to attempt to raise a queen. For two whole weeks,, 
they adhered to their forlorn hope ; until at last, when they 
had dwindled to less than one-half their original number, 
their new queen emerged, but with wings so imperfect that 
she could not fly. Crippled as she was, they treated her 
with almost as much respect as though she were fertile. In 






Fig. 92&. (From Alley.) 

the course of a week more, scarce a dozen workers remained 
in the hive, and a few days later, the queen was gone, and 
only a few disconsolate wretches were left on the comb. 

528. Mr. Alley, who raises queens by the thousand, has 
published his method of queen-rearing. His queens are all 
raised in very small nuclei which he calls miniature hives. 
From a light-colored worker-comb filled with hatching eggs, 
he cuts strips with a sharp knife, as in fig. 925. 

"After the comb has been cut up, lay the pieces flat upon a board 
or table, and cut the cells on one side down to within one fourth 
of an inch of the foundation or septum, as seen in fig. 93£which 
represents the comb ready to place in position for cell build- 
ing. While engaged in this work, keep a lighted lamp near 




Fig. 93&. (From Alley.) 

at hand, with which to heat the knife, or the cells will be 
badly jammed ***** 



alley's method. 



271 



The strips of comb being ready, we simply destroy each alter- 
nate larva or egg, (fig. 926. In order to do this, take the strios 
carefully in the left hand, and insert the end of a common lucifer 
match into each alternate cell, pressing it gently on the bottom 
of the cell, and then twirling it rapidly between the thumb and 
fingers. This gives plenty of room for large cells to be built with- 
out interfering with those adjoining, and permits of their being 
separated without injury to neighboring cells." — "Bee-keepers' 
Handy Book," Wenham, 1885. 

This strip, Mr. Alley fastens under a trimmed comb cut 
slightly convex, by dipping the cells, which have been left 
full length, into a mixture of two parts rosin and one of 




Fig. 94. (From Alley.) 



bees-wax, taking care not to over-heat this mixture, as the 
heat might destroy the eggs (fig. 94). The comb thus pre- 
pared is given to a miniature colony, which has been queen- 



272 QUEEN REARING. 

less and without brood for ten hours, Mr. Alley having no- 
ticed that the eggs may be destroyed if given to a colony 
just made queenless. 

This method is probably the most expeditious and the 
cheapest that can be followed, for raising a large number of 
queens ; but we would hardly advise Apiarists to use as 
small nuclei as Mr. Alley does (5 combs, 4| inches square). 
The stronger the colony in which a queen is raised, the better 
the queen. 

529. As it happens very often, that more queen-cells 
are raised than are needed immediately, and as the bees 
usually destroy all after the first one has hatched, Apiarists 
have devised queen-nurseries to preserve the supernumer- 
ary cells until needed. It is not- safe to leave the queen- 
cells under the control of the bees after ten days, as a queen 
may hatch at any time. 

There are several ways to make queen-nurseries. Messrs. 
Root, Hayhurst, Heddon and Hutchinson, warm their nur- 
series with lamps, while the nurseries used by Messrs. Alley, 
Demaree and others, are placed in well populated hives. 

530. The lamp-nursery is a doubled-walled tin box,* 
of the right size to receive the breeding frames. The space 
between the walls and the bottom is filled with water, and a 
kerosene lamp is lighted under it, with the flame about one 
foot from the bottom of the box. The temperature of this 
lamp-nursery is regulated by raising or lowering the flame, 
and is kept between 90° and ^00°. The combs containing 
the sealed queen-cells are placed in this box, and if the 
brood in the combs is all of the same age, every queen will 
hatch, at least, five days before any of the workers. These 
queen- cells have to be examined every few hours, for the 
first queens hatched would destroy the others. 

The Alley queen-nursery is composed of a number of small 

* Mr. Hayhurst, of Kansas City, who is one of the most successful Western, 
queen breeders, uses a galvanised iron nnrsery, packed in a chaff case. 



QUEEN NURSERIES. 273 

cages, covered with wire cloth on each side and inserted in 
a frame. Each cage has two holes at the top, one for a 
sponge saturated with honey, the other to receive the queen- 
cell. The frame is inserted in a strong colony, not neces- 
sarily queenless, since these young queens are caged, and 
have feed at hand when they hatch. 

The hatching of queens in nurseries properly belongs to 
the trade of the queen-breeder. The honey producer, who 
raises queens for himself only, does not need fresh queens 
every day. Besides, the introducing of these young virgin 
queens to nuclei, previous to impregnation, is quite difficult 
and uncertain. (541.) 

531. Before we pass to the subject of introducing queens, 
we cannot refrain from noticing the rapid progress of the 
business of queen rearing in the last 20 years. The intro- 
duction of brighter races has greatly increased the spread- 
ing of Apiarian science, and many facts which, years ago, 
were known only to the few, now belong to the public do- 
main. 

532. In breeding the new races, let the novice remem- 
ber that the qualities he should seek to improve are, first, 
prolificness and honey production ; second, peaceableness ; 
third, beauty. 

Since their introduction into this country, the Italians 
have been bred too much for color, at the expense of their 
other qualities. We have seen queens, that had been so in- 
bred for color, that their mating with a black drone hardly 
showed the hybridization of their progeny. 

This in-and-in breeding, for color, has even produced white- 
eyed drones, stone blind, a degeneracy which would tend to 
the extinction of the race. 
18 



274 QUEEN REARING. 



Introducing Impregnated Queens. 

533. Great caution is needed in giving to bees a stranger 
queen. Huber thus described the way in which a new queen 
is usually received by a colony : 

"If another queen is introduced into the hive within twelve 
hours after the removal of the reigning one, they surround, seize, 
and keep her a very long time captive, in an impenetrable clus- 
ter, and she commonly dies either from hunger or want of air. If 
eighteen hours elapse before the substitution of a stranger-queen, 
she is treated, at first, in the same way, but the bees leave her 
sooner, nor is the surrounding cluster so close ; they gradually 
disperse, and the queen is at last liberated ; she moves languidly, 
and sometimes expires in a few minutes. Some, however, es- 
cape in good health, and afterwards reign in the hive." 

The manner in which strange queens are treated by the 
bees, when they are queenless, depends mainly on the state 
of the honey harvest. 

534. But in order to meet with uniform success, the fol- 
lowing conditions must be fulfilled : 

The bees must be absolute^ queenless. Sometimes a 
colony contains two (117) queens, and the Apiarist after 
removing one may imagine that he can introduce a stranger, 
safely. Many queens are thus killed. 

535. As bees recognize one another by the scent, the 
new queen should be placed so as to get the odor of the 

^hiye, before being released among them. This can be ef- 
fected, readily by sprinkling the bees and the new queen 
,with sweetened water scented with peppermint, and liberat- 
iing.her.at once. But as this method generally causes some 
jobbing (664) in times of scarcity, it is not always to be 
relied upon. 

536. Our method consists in placing the queen in a small 
flat cage, made of wire cloth, between two combs, in the 



INTRODUCING IMPREGNATED QUEENS. 275 

most populous part of the hive, near the brood and the 
honey, and keeping her there from 24 to 48 hours. These 
queen-cages were first used in Germany for introducing 
queens. 

537. In catching a queen, she should be gently taken 
with the fingers, from among the bees, and if none are 
crushed, there is no risk of being stung. The queen her- 
self will not sting, even if roughly handled. 

If she is allowed to fly, she may be lost, by attempting 
to enter a strange hive. 

To introduce her into the cage, she should be allowed to 
climb up into it. It is a fact well known to queen breeders 
that a bee or a queen cannot be easily induced to enter a cage 
or a box turned downward. The meshes of the wire cloth 
should not be closer than 12 to the inch, that the bees may 
feed the queen readily through them. This is important, 
for we have lost two queens successively in a cage with 
closer meshes. 

The bees will cultivate an acquaintance with the impris- 
oned mother, by thrusting their antennas through the open- 
ings, and will be as quiet as though the queen had her lib- 
erty. Such a cage will be very convenient for any tempor- 
ary confinement of a queen. 

538. It is necessary, when the queen is released, that 
the bees be in good spirits, neither frightened, nor angered, 
and there should be no robbers about, as they might take 
her for an intruder, and ball her. 

This technical word is used to describe the peculiar way 
in which bees surround a queen whom they want to kill. 
The cluster that encloses her, is in the form of a ball, some- 
times as large as one's fist, and so compact that it cannot 
readily be scattered. She may be rescued by throwing the 
ball into a basin of water. We have known bees to ball 
their own mother in such circumstances, for queens are of 
a timid disposition and easily frightened. When we release 



276 QUEEN REARING. 

a strange queen, we put a small slice of comb honey, or honey 
cappings, in place of the stopper of the cage, and close the 
hive. It takes from 15 to 20 minutes for the bees to eat 
through, and by that time all is quiet, so the queen walks 
leisurely out of her cage, and is safe. 

539. If the colony, in which a queen is to be intro- 
duced, is destitute, the bees should be abundantly fed on 
the preceding night (605). After she has been released, 
it is well to leave the colony alone for two or three days. 

As a fertile queen can lay several thousand eggs a day, 
it is not strange that she should quickly become exhausted, 
if taken from the bees. " Ex nihilo nihil fit " — from noth- 
ing, nothing comes — and the arduous duties of maternity 
compel her to be an enormous eater. After an absence 
from the bees of only fifteen minutes, she will solicit honey, 
when returned ; and if kept away for an hour or upwards, 
she must either be fed by the Apiarist, or have bees to sup- 
ply her wants. 

Mr. Simmins has taken advantage of this appetite, and 
of the propensity of bees to feed the queens, in introducing 
them directly, after keeping them without bees and food, 
for about 30 minutes. At dusk he lifts a corner of the 
cloth (352) of the hive in which he wants to introduce the 
queen, drives the bees away with a little smoke (382), 
and permits the queen to run between the combs. Then he 
waits 48 hours before visiting the hive. Several bee-keep- 
ers report having succeeded with this method. On ac- 
count of this propensity of bees to feed queens, any num- 
ber of fertile ones may be kept in a hive already containing 
a fertile queen, if they are placed in cages between the 
combs, near the honey and the brood. 

540. Some Apiarists use chloroform, ether, puff-balls, or 
other ingredients, to stupefy the bees of mutinous colonies 
who persist in refusing to accept a strange queen and who 



INTRODUCTION OF VIRGIN QUEENS. 277 

show it by angrily surrounding the cage in which she is 
confined. 

The Rev. John Thorley, in his "Female Monarchy," 
published at London, in 1744, appears to have first intro- 
duced the practice of stupefying bees by the narcotic fumes 
of the " puff ball " (Fungus pulverulentus), dried till it will 
hold fire like tinder. The bees soon drop motionless from 
their comb, and recover again after a short exposure to the 
air. This method was once much practiced in France (L' Ap- 
iculteur, page 17, Paris, 1856) but is very dangerous, as too 
large a dose of anaesthetics will cause death instead of sleep. 

Introduction of Virgin Queens. 

541. The difference in looks between a virgin queen 
and an impregnated one is striking, and an expert will 
distinguish them at a glance. The virgin queen is slender, 
her abdomen is small, her motions quick, she runs about and 
almost flies over the combs, when trying to hide from the 
light. In fact, she has nothing of the matronly dignity of 
a mother. 

Bees, in possession of a fertile queen, are quite reluctant 
to eccept an unimpregnated one in her stead ; indeed, it 
requires much experience to be able to give a virgin queen 
to a colony, and yet be sure of securing for her a good re- 
ception. 

Mr. Langstroth was the first to ascertain, years ago, that 
the best time to introduce her, is just after her birth, as soon 
as she can crawl readily. If introduced too soon, the bees 
may drag her out, as they would any imperfect worker. 
Most queen-breeders liberate them on the comb, or at the 
entrance of a queenless nucleus. Mr. H. D. Cutting, of 
Clinton, Mich., recommends daubing the young queen with 
honey, as she comes out of her cell, and liberating her 



278 QUEEN REARING. 

among the bees, without touching her with the fingers. 

Nearly all breeders acknowledge that the introduction of 
virgin queens to full colonies is an uncertain business, and 
that they can be introduced safely only to small nuclei that 
have been queenless some time. In this, we fully agree. 

Mr. G. W. Demaree, of Christianburg, Ky.,is quite suc- 
cessful in the introduction of virgin queens several days old, 
by much the same process as that given by us for the intro- 
duction of fertile queens. 

We would advise novices to abstain from introducing vir- 
gin queens, until they become expert in the business of 
queen rearing ; the introduction of unhatched queen-cells 
being much more easily performed, and more uniformly 
successful. 

542. In introducing queens or queen-cells to full colo- 
nies dudng the swarming season, it happens very often that 
the bees also raise queen-cells of their own brood, and 
swarm with the queen given them (465). In view of this, 
the Apiarist should watch, for a few days, the colony to 
which a new queen has been introduced. 

543. In hunting for a queen, it is necessary to remem- 
ber that she is on the brood combs unless frightened away. 
If the bees are not greatly disturbed, an Italian queen may 
be found within five minutes after opening the hive. 

A queen of common bees, or of hybrids, is more difficult 
to find, as her bees often rush about the hive as soon as it is 
opened. If she cannot be found on the combs, and the hive 
is populous, it is best to shake all the frames on a sheet, in 
fro t of an empty box, and secure them in a closed hive, out 
of the reach of robbers, until the search is over, when every- 
thing may be returned to its proper place. 

544. After a queen is taken from a cage, the bees will 
run in and out of it for a long time, thus proving that they 
recognize her peculiar scent. It is this odor which causes 
them to run inquiringly over our hands, after we have caught 



INTRODUCTION OF VIRGIN QUEENS. 279 

a queen, and over any spot where she alighted when her 
swarm came forth. 

This scent of the queen was probably known in Aristotle's 
time, who says : " When the bees swarm, if the king (queen) 
is lost, we are told that they all search for him, and follow 
him with their sagacious smell, until they find him. " 
Wilclman says : ' ' The scent of her body is so attractive to 
them, that the slightest touch of her, along any place, or 
substance, will attract the bees to it, and induce them to 
pursue any path she takes. " 

The intelligent bee-keeper has now realized, not only 
how queens may be raised or replaced, by the use of the 
movable-frame hive, but how any operation, which in other 
hives is performed with difficulty, if at all, is in this rendered 
easy and certain. No hive, however, can make the ignorant 
or negligent very successful, even if they live in a region 
where the climate is so propitious, and the honey resources 
so abundant, that the bees will prosper in spite of misman- 
agement or neglect. 



280 RACES OF BEES 

CHAPTER IX. 
Races of Bees. 



545. The honey-bee is not indigenous to America. 
Thomas Jefferson, in his " Notes on Virginia," says: 

" The honey-bee is not a native of our country. Marcgrave 
indeed, mentions a species of honey-bee in Brazil. But this has 
no sting, and is therefore different from the one we have, which 
resembles perfectly that of Europe. The Indians concur with us 
in the tradition that it was brought from Europe ; but when and 
by whom, we know not. The bees have generally extended 
themselves into the country, a little in advance of the white set- 
tlers. The Indians therefore call them, the white man's fly." 

" When John Eliot translated the Scriptures into the language 
of the Aborigines of North America, no words were found ex- 
pressive of the terms wax and honey." (A. B. J. July 1S66.) 

Longfellow, in his "Song of Hiawatha," in describing 
the advent of the European to the New World, makes his 
Indian warrior say of the bee and the white clover : — 

"Wheresoe'er they move, before them 
Swarms the stinging fly, the Ahmo, 
Swarms the bee, the honey-maker; 
Wheresoe'er they tread, beneath them 
Springs a flower unknown among us, 
Springs the White Man's Eoot in blossom." 

546. According to the quotations of the A. B. J., 
common bees were imported into Florida, by the Spaniards 
previous to 1763, for they were first noticed in West 
Florida in that year. They appeared in Kentucky in 1780, 
in New York in 1793, and West of the Mississippi in 1797. 

547. "It is surprising in what countless swarms the bees have 
overspread the far West within but a moderate number of years. 



THE BEE IN AMERICA. 281 

The Indians consider them the harbingers of the white man, as 
the buffalo is of the red man, and say that, in proportion as the 

bee advances, the Indian and the buffalo retire They have 

been the heralds of civilization, steadily preceding it as it ad- 
vances from the Atlantic borders ; and some of the ancient set- 
tlers of the West pretend to give the very year when the honey- 
bee first crossed the Mississippi. At present it swarms in my- 
riads in the noble groves and forests that skirt and intersect the 
prairies, and extend along the alluvial bottoms of the rivers. It 
seems to me as if these beautiful regions answer literally to the 
description of the land of promise — 'a land flowing with milk and 
honey ;' for the rich pasturage of the prairies is calculated to sus- 
tain herds of cattle as countless as the sands upon the sea-shore, 
while the flowers with which they are enamelled render them a 
very paradise for the nectar-seeking bee." — Washington Irving, 
" Tour on the Prairies," Chap. IX. (1832). 

Many Apiarists contend that newly-settled countries are 
most favorable to the bee ; and an old German adage runs 

thus ; — 

** Bells' ding dong, 
And choral song, 
Deter the bee 
From industry : 
But hoot of owl, 
And ' wolf's long howl,' 
Incite to moil 
And steady toil." 

It is evident that the bees spread Westward very rapidly, 
and to this day, many old bee-men can be found, who posi- 
tively assert that a swarm never goes Eastward, even after 
it is proven to them that they usually go to the nearest 
timber. 

548. Bees, like all other insects, are divided scientifically 
into genera, species, and varieties. 

Aristotle speaks of three different varieties of the honey- 
bee, as well known in his time. The best variety he describes 
as " [uoopd, g-rpoyyvXif] ccai ttolociXtj'- " — that is, small, and 
round in size and shape, and variegated in color. 



282 RACES OF BEES. 

Virgil (Georgica, lib. IV., 98) speaks of two kinds as 
flourishing in his time ; the better of the two he thus de- 
scribes : 

" Elucent aliae, et fulgore coruscant, 
Ardentes auro, et paribus lita corpora guttis. 
Hrec potior soboles ; nine coeli tempore certo 
Dulcia mella premes." 

" The others glitter, and their variegated bodies shine like 
drops of sprinkling gold. This better breed! Thanks to 
them, if the weather of the sky is certain, you will have honey 
combs to press." 

This better variety, it will be seen, he characterizes as 
spotted or variegated, and of a beautiful golden color. 

549. The first bee introduced into America, was the 
common bee of Europe, Western Asia, and Western Africa, 
Apis mellifica, usually designated under the name of black, 
or gray bee. Both names are appropriate, since the race 
varies in shade, according to localities. In the greater part 
of Africa, as well as in the European provinces of Turkey, 
the common bees are dark, nearly black. In other places, 
their color is grayish. They vary in size, as well. Accord- 
ing to some French writers, the bees of Holland are small, 
and denominated ,L la petite Hollandaise ' ' (the little Hol- 
lander) ; on the other hand, the Carniolan* bees are quite 
large. We have never seen queens as large as some Car- 
niolans which we imported some ten years ago. But, in spite 
of the prolificness and general good reputation of this race, 
we did not attempt to propagate it, owing to the difficulty 
of detecting their mating with the common bees, since they 
are almost alike in color. 

550. Besides the common bee, there are a great many 
varieties. The best known are: 1st, the Ligurian, Apis 
Ligustica, so named by Spinola, because he found it first, in 

* Carniolan is a province of Austria, near the Adriatic, but on the East slope 
of the mountains. 



THE ITALIAN BEE. 283 

the part of Italy called Liguria. The Rev. E. W. Oilman, 
of Bangor, Maine, directed the writer's attention to Spinola's 
" Insectorum Ligurice species novce aut rariores^ from 
which it appears, that Spinola accurately described all the 
peculiarities of this bee, which he found in Piedmont, in 
1805. He fully identified it with the bee described by Aris- 
totle. 

2d. The apis fasciata (banded bee). This bee, related 
to the Italian, or Ligurian, which has yellow bands also, is 
found in Egypt, in Arabia, along both sides of the Red 
Sea, in Syria, and in Cyprus. 

3d. We shall mention also the large Apis dorsata of South- 
ern Asia, and the melipones of Brazil and Mexico. 

551. The Italian bee, Apis Ligustica , spoken of by Aris- 
totle and Virgil as the best kind, still exists distinct and 
pure from the common kind, after the lapse of more than 
two thousand years. 

The great superiority of this race, over any other race 
known, is now universally acknowledged ; for it has victor- 
iously stood the test of practical bee-keepers, side by side 
with the common bee. The ultimate superseding of the 
common bee by the Italian in this country is but a matter 
of time. 

552. The following facts are evident: 

1st. The Italian bees are less sensitive to cold than the 
common kind. 2d. Their queens are more prolific. 
3d. They defend their hives better against insects. Moths 
(802) are hardly ever found in their combs, while they are 
occasionally found in the combs of even the strongest colo- 
nies of common bees. Their great vigilance is due to the 
mildness of the climate of Italy, whose Winters never 
destroy the moth. Having to defend themselves against a 
more numerous enemy, they are more watchful than the bees 
of colder regions. 4th. They are less apt to sting. Not 
only are they less apt, but scarcely are they inclined to sting, 



284 HACES OF BEES. 

though they will do so if intentionally annoyed, or irritated, 
or improperly treated. 

Spinola speaks of the more peaceable disposition or this 
bee ; and Columella, 1800 years ago, had noticed the same 
peculiarity, describing it as "mitior moribus," (milder in 
habits). When once irritated, however, they become very 
cross. 

5th. They are more industrious. Of this fact, all the 
results go to confirm Dzierzon's statements, and satisfy us 
of the superiority of this kind in every point of view. 
6th. They are more disposed to rob than common bees, and 
more courageous and active in self-defense. They strive 
on all hands to force their way into colonies of common bees ; 
but when strange bees attack their hives, they fight with 
great fierceness, and with an incredible adroitness. 

Spinola speaks of these bees as "velociores motu" — 
quicker in their motions than the common bees. 

They however sooner grow tired of hunting, where nothing 
can be gained ; and if all the plunder is put out of their reach, 
they will give up the attempt at robbing (664) more prompt- 
ly than common bees. 

7th. Aside from their peaceableness, they are more easily 
handled than the common bees, as they cling to their combs 
and do not rush about, or cluster here and there, or fall to 
the ground, as the common bees do. 

It is hardly necessary to add, that this species of the 
honey-bee, so much more productive than the common kind, 
is of very great value in all sections of our country. Its 
superior docility makes it worthy of high regard, even if in 
other respects it had no peculiar merits. Its introduction 
into this country, has helped to constitute the new era in 
bee-keeping, and has imparted much interest to its pursuit. 
It is one of the causes which have enabled America to 
surpass the world in the production of honey. 

553. Their appearance can be described as follows: 



THE ITALIAN BEE. 



285 




"The first three abdominal rings (fig. 95 ) of the worker 
bee are trrnsparent, and vary from a dark straw or golden 
color to the deep yellow of ochre. These rings have a nar- 
row dark edge or border, so that the yellow, which is some- 
times called leather color, constitutes the ground, and is 
seemingly barred over by these black 
edges. This is most distinctly percepti- 
ble when a brood-comb, on which bees 
are densely crowded, is taken out of a 
hive, or when a bee is put on a window. 
When the bee is full of honey these 
rings extend and slide out of one another, 
and the yellow bands show to better 
advantage, especially if the honey eaten 
is of a light color. On the contrary, dur- 
ing a dearth of honey, the rings are 
drawn up, or telescoped in one another, 
and the bee hardly looks like the same 
insect. This peculiarity has annoyed ma- 
ny bee-keepers, who imagined their beau- 
tiful bees had suddenly become hybrids. 

In doubtful cases, as the purity of Italian bees is very 
important, it is well to follow the advice of A. I. Root : • • If 
you are undecided in regard to your bees' purity, get some 
of the bees and feed them all the honey they can take ; now 
put them on a window, and if the band C (fig. 95) is not 
plainly visible, call them hybrids." (-'A. B. C. page 145). 

554. Aside from this test, their tenacity and quietness 
on the comb, while handled (378), are infallible signs of 
purity. We have repeatedly carried a frame of brood cov- 
ered with pure Italian bees, from a hive to the house, and 
passed the comb from hand to hand among visitors, some 
of whom were ladies, without a single bee dropping off, 
or attempting to sting. 

555. The drones (185) and the queens are very irregu- 



Fig. 95. 

ABDOMEN OF THE 
ITALIAN BEE. 

From A. I. Root. 



286 RACES OF BEES. 

lar in markings, some being of a very bright yellow color, 
others almost as dark as drones or queens of common bees. 

" It is a remarkable fact that an Italian queen, impregnated by 
a common drone, and a common queen impregnated by an Ital- 
ian drone, do not produce workers of a uniform intermediate 
cast, or hybrids ; but some of the workers bred from the eggs of 
each queen will be purely of the Italian, and others as purely of 
the common race, only a few of them, indeed, being apparently 
hybrids. Berlepsch also had several mismated queens, which at 
first produced Italian workers exclusively, and afterwards com- 
mon workers as exciusively. Some such queens produced fully 
three-fourths Italian workers ; others, common workers in the 
same proportion. ISTay, he states that he had one beautiful 
orange-yellow mismated Italian queen which did not produce a 
single Italian worker, but only common workers, perhaps a 
shade lighter in color. The drones, however, produced by a mis- 
mated Italian queen are uniformly of the Italian race, and this 
fact, besides demonstrating the truth of Dzierzon's theory,(I33) 
renders the preservation and perpetuation of the Italian race, in 
its purity, entirely feasible in any country where they may be 
introduced." — S. Wagner. 

556. The Italian bees from different parts of Italy are of 
different shades, but otherwise, preserve about the same 
characteristics all over the peninsula. But how can they 
keep pure, since there are common bees in Europe? A 
glance at the map will answer the question. Italy ite sur- 
rounded on all sides by water or snow-covered mountains, 
which offer an insuperable barrier to any insects. This is 
further evidenced b}^ the fact that the bees of the canton of 
Tessin (Italian Switzerland) are Italians, being on the 
South side of the Alps, while those of the canton of Uri 
(German Switzerland), on the other side of the mountains 
and only a few miles off, are common bees.* 

557. The importation of Italian bees to another country 
was first attempted by Capt. Baldenstein. 

* The idea that select Italian bees raised in America, may be purer than any 
.Italians ever imported, has been gravely discnsaed by some persons. 



THE ITALIAN BEE. 287 

"Being stationed in Italy, during part of the Napoleonic wars, 
he noticed that the bees, in the Lombardo-Venitian district oi 
Valtelin, and on the borders of Lake Conio, differed in color from 
the common kind, and seemed to be more industrious. At the 
close of the war, he retired from the army, and returned to his 
ancestral castle, on the Rhsetian Alps, in Switzerland ; and to 
occupy his leisure, had recourse to bee-culture, which had been 
his favorite hobby in earlier years. While studying the natural 
history, habits, and instincts of these insects, he remembered 
what he had observed in Italy, and resolved to procure a colony 
from that country. Accordingly, he sent two men thither, who 
purchased one, and carried it over the mountains, to his resi- 
dence, in September, 1843. 

" His observations and inferences impelled Dzierzon — who had 
previously ascertained that the cells of the Italian and common 
bees were of the same size — to make an effort to procure the 
Italian bee; and, by the aid of the Austrian Agricultural Society 
at Vienna,* he succeeded in obtaining, late in February, 1853, 
a colony from Mira, near Venice." — S. Wagner. 

558. An attempt was made in 1856, by Mr. Wagner, to 
import them into America ; but, unfortunately, the colonies 
perished on the voyage. The first living Italian bees landed 
on this continent were imported in the Fall of 1859 by Mr. 
Wagner and Mr. Richard Colvin, of Baltimore, from 
Dzierzon' s Apiary. Mr. P. G-. Mahan, of Philadelphia, 
brought over at the same time a few colonies. In the Spring 
of 1860, Mr. S. B. Parsons, of Flushing, L. I., imported a 
number of colonies from Italy. Mr. William G. Rose, of 
New York, in 1861, imported also from Italy. Mr. Colvin 
made a number of importations from Dzierzon' s Apiary ; and 

*Some of the Governments of Europe have long ago taken great interest in 
disseminating among their people a knowledge of Dziprzon's system of Bee- 
Culture. Prussia furnishes monthly a number of persons from different parts 
of the Kingdom with the means of acquiring a practical knowledge of this 
system; while the Bavarian Government has prescribed instruction in Dzier- 
zon' s theory and practice of bee-culture, as a part of the regular course oi 
studies in its teachers' Seminaries. We are glad to see that the United States 
is beginning to recognize the importance of bee-culture, and that an Apiarian 
department has been inaugurated under the control of the Agricultural Depart- 
ment at Washington. 



288 RACES OF BEES. 

in the Fall of 1863 and 1864 Mr. Langstroth also imported 
queens from the same Apiary, but the first large successful 
importations were made by Adam Grimm of Wisconsin, in 
1867, from the Apiary of Prof. Mona of Bellinzona, and by 
us in 1874, from the Apiary of Signor Giuseppe Fiorini of 
Monselice, Italy. Since then, Mr. A. I. Root, and others, 
have succeeded well nearly every season. 

This valuable variety of the honey-bee is now extensively 
disseminated in North America. 

For directions on breeding and shipping Italian bees, see 
the chapters on Queen Raising (497) and Shipping Bees 
(587). 

559. The Egyptian bees (Apis fasciata) are smaller and 
brighter than the Italian bee. The hairs of their body are 
more whitish, and their motions are quick and fly -like. Their 
prolificness is great, but their ill-disposition has caused 
many who have tried them to abandon them. 

The Cyprian bees (a sub-race of Apis fasciata) were 
imported from Cyprus to Europe in 1872, and they were 
so much praised that, in 1880, two enterprising American 
Apiarists, Messrs. D. A. Jones and Frank Benton made a 
trip to Cyprus and the Holy Land, and brought bees from 
both countries to America, 

The Cyprian bees resemble the Italian bees. The main 
difference between them, in appearance, is a bright 3-ellow 
shield on the thorax of the Cyprians not to be seen in the 
Italians, and the yellow rings of the former are brighter, 
of a copper color, especially under the abdomen. Their 
drones are beautiful. 

Their behavior is like that of the Egyptians ; quick and 
ready, they promptly assail those who dare handle them. 
Smoke astonishes but does not subdue them. At each 
puff of the smoker (382). they emit a sharp, trilling 
sound, not easily forgotten, resembling that of "meat in 
the frying pan," and as soon as the smoke disappears, they 



THE SYRIAN BEE. 289 

are again on the watch, ready to pounce on any enemy, 
whether man or beast, bee or moth. Their courage and 
great prolificness would make them a very desirable race, 
if they could be handled safely. 

A slight mixture of this race with the Italian improves the 
latter wonderfully in color and working qualities. 

560. The Holy Land or Syrian bees are almost similar 
in looks to the Egyptian, these two countries being contigu- 
ous. Those who have tried them do not agree as to their 
behavior ; some holding them to be very peaceable, others 
describing them as very cross. We have never tried them. 

Among the different races of Eastern bees, the Caucasian 
are cited by Vogel, a German, as of such mild disposi- 
tion, that it is hard to get them to sting. Yet it is said that 
these bees defend themselves well against robber bees. 

According to Vogel, they resemble the Syrian bees, having 
also the shield of the Cyprians. It would seem that these 
bees exist in the temperate zone of Asia, from the shores 
of the Mediterranean to the Himalayas, for Dr. Dubini, in 
his book, writes that they were found at the foot of these 
mountains. 

561. According to an article in the " Scientific Review" 
of England, although bees have been sent from this country 
and Europe, to Australia, there is an Australian native bee, 
which builds its nest on the Eucalyptus. These bees gather 
immense quantities of a kind of honey which, although very 
sweet, can be used as medicine, to replace the cod-liver oil, 
used with so much repugnance by consumptives. 

562. Apis dorsata, the largest bee known, lives in the 
jungles of India. Mr. Benton attempted to import this bee 
at great expense and danger, but only succeeded in bring- 
ing one colony to Syria, where it died. Mr. Vogel tried 
also to bring some of them to Germany without success. 
At all events further attempts at importing or domesticat- 
ing these bees would be so expensive, that private enter- 

19 



290 RACES OF BEES. 

prise will be balked by the task. It behooves our govern- 
ment to take such matters in hand for the public good. 
Besides Apis dorsata, two other kinds exist in India, Apis 
florea and Apis Indica. The latter is cultivated by the 
natives with good results. Both are smaller than our com- 
mon bee. 

563. Another race of bees,* the Melipone, is found in 
Brazil and Mexico. More than twelve varieties of these 
have been described, all without stings. 

Huber, in the beginning of this century, received a nest 
of them, but the bees died before reaching Geneva. Mr. 
Drory, while at Bordeaux, France, was more successful. 
One of his friends sent him a colony of Melipones, and he 
published in the "Bucher du Sud-Ouest " some very curious 
facts concerning them. The cells containing the stores of 
honey and pollen are not placed near those intended for 
brood, but higher in the hive ; they are as large as pigeon 
eggs, and attached in clusters to the walls of the hive. The 
brood cells are placed horizontally in rows of several sto- 
ries. The workers do not nurse the brood, but fill the cells 
with food, on which the queen lays. The cells are then 
closed till the young bees emerge from them. 

A peculiarity of these bees is that the entrance to their 
home, which is very narrow, is usually watched by a single 
bee, acting as janitor, and withdrawing from the door to let 
the workers pass. They cannot stand the cold, and Mr. 
Drory could not save his, in spite of his care, in a location 
as mild as that of Bordeaux. Mr. T. F. Bingham of Abronia, 
Michigan, imported a nest of them, in the Spring of 1886, 
and lost them the same Fall. A part of their nest was exhib- 
ited by him at the Indianapolis Convention, in October 1868. 

* These bees are scientifically classified as belonging to a different genun of 
Apidae. 



THE APIABT. 291 



CHAPTER X. 

The Apiary. 

Location. 

564. Any one can keep bees, successfully, if he has a 
liking for this pursuit and is not too timid to follow the 
directions given in this treatise. Even ladies can manage 
a large Apiary successfully, with but little help. 

Almost any locality will yield a surplus of honey in aver- 
age seasons. Mr. Chas. F. Muth of Cincinnati, with 22 
colonies of bees, on the roof of his house, in the heart of 
this large city, harvested a surplus honey yield of 198 lbs. 
per colony in one season. 

Mr. Muth informed us that this surplus was collected from 
white clover blossoms in 26 days. 

565. But an intimate acquaintance with the honey 
resources of the country is highly important to those desirous 
of engaging largely in bee-culture. While, in some localities, 
bees will accumulate large stores, in others, only a mile or 
two distant, they may yield but a small profit. 

" While Huber resided at Cour, and afterwards at Vevey, his 
bees suffered so much from scanty pasturage, that he could only 
preserve them by feeding, although stocks that were but two 
miles from him were, in each case, storing their hives abund- 
antly." — Bevan. 

Those desirous of becoming specialists will find the subject 
of location and yield further treated in the chapter on 
Pasturage and Overstocking (698). 

566. Inexperienced persons will seldom find it profitable 
to begin bee-keeping on a large scale. By using movable- 



r>" 



292 



THE APIARY. 



frame (286) hives, they can rapidly increase their stock 
after they have acquired skill, and have ascertained, not 
simply that money can be made by keeping bees, but that 
they can make it. 

While large profits can be realized by careful and exper- 
ienced bee-keepers, those who are otherwise will be almost 
sure to find their outlay result only in vexatious losses. An 

Apiary neglected or 
mismanaged is worse 
than a farm overgrown 
with weeds or exhaust- 
ed by ignorant tillage ; 
for the land, by prudent 
management, may again 
be made fertile, but the 
bees, when once de- 
stroyed, are a total loss. 
Of all farm pursuits bee- 
culture requires the 
Fig# 96 _ greatest skill, and it 

ornamental glass hive; old style; may well be called a 
front view. business of details. 

567. Wherever the Apiary is established, great pains 
should be taken to protect the bees against high winds. 
Their hives should be placed where they will not be annoyed 
by foot passengers or cattle, and should never be very near 
where horses must stand or pass. If managed on the 
swarming plan, it is very desirable that they should be in 
full sight of the rooms most occupied, or at least where the 
sound of their swarming (406) will be easily heard. 

In the Northern and Middle States, the hives should have 
a South-Eastern, Southern, or South-Western exposure, to 
give the bees the benefit of the sun, when it will be most 
conducive to their welfare. 

568. The plot occupied by the Apiary should be 
grassy, mowed frequently, and kept free from weeds. 




LOCATION. 



293 



Sand, gravel, saw-dust* or coal cinders, spread in front of 
the hive, will prevent the growing of grass in their (382) 
immediate vicinity, and be a great help to those overladen 
bees, that fall to the ground before reaching the entrance. 

Hives are too often placed where many bees perish by 
falling into the dirt, or among the tall weeds and grass, 
where spiders and toads find 
their choice lurking-places. 

A gentle slope southward 
will help to set the hives as 
they should be, slanting 
toward the entrance (327, 
328). 

569. They should be 
placed on separate stands, 
entirely independent of one 
another, and, whenever prac- 
ticable, room should be left 
for the Apiarist to pass 
around each hive. We pre- 
fer to place them in rows six-i 
teen feet apart, with the hives kg. 97. ornamental glass-hive. 
about six feet apart in the BACK VIEW * 0LD STYLE ' 

rows. This isolates each hive 

completely, and, while handling one colony, the Apiarist is 
not in danger of being stung by the bees of another. The 
bees are also less likely to enter the wrong hives (502). 




Covered Apiaries. 

570. Covered Apiaries, unless built at great expense, 
afford little or no protection against extreme heat or cold, 
and greatly increase the risk of losing the queens (356), 



* Saw-dust is perhaps not very safe, owing to danger of fire from the smo- 
kers, in very dry weather. 



294 



THE APIARY. 



and the young bees. The weak colonies are always the 
losers, for their young bees, in returning from their first 
trip (173), are attracted by the noise of other hives closely 




adjoining, and prove the truth of the French proverb "La 
pierre va toujours au tas," (the stone always goes to the 
heap). 

When hives must stand too close together, they should b3 



COVERED APIARIES. 295 

of different colors. Even varying the color of the blocks 
will be of great usefulness. 

John Mills, in a work published at London, in 1766, 
gives (p. 93) the following directions: — "Forget not to 
paint the mouths of your colonies with different colors, as 
red, white, blue, yellow, &c, in form of a half-moon, or 
square, that the bees may the better know their own homes. " 

Covered Apiaries are common in Germany and Italy ; 
their only quality is that of being thief proof, when shut and 
locked. But such structures, especially when several sto- 
ries high, cannot easily shelter top-opening hives. 

571. Probably the most convenient covered Apiaries are 
simple sheds, facing South, and open in front during the 
Summer and warm days of Winter. House Apiaries, in 
which the hives are placed in several stories, facing every 
direction, are worse than nothing. Their only quality is 
to be ornamental and costly. 

572. For ease of manipulation, out-door Apiaries are 
preferable. 

In the Summer, no place is so congenial to bees as the 
shade of trees, if it is not too dense, or the branches so 
low as to interfere with their flight. As the weather 
becomes cool, they can, if necessary, be moved to any more 
desirable Winter location. If colonies are moved in the 
line of their flight, and a short distance at a time, no loss 
of bees will be incurred ; but, if moved a few yards, all at 
once, many will be lost. A slanting board placed in front 
of the hive, so as to prevent the bees from flying in straight 
line from the entrance to the field, will incite them to mark 
the change of their position. By a gradual process, the hives 
in a small Apiary may, in the Fall, be brought into a narrow 
compass, so that they can be easily sheltered from the bleak 
Winter winds. In the Spring, they may be gradually 
returned to their old positions. 

By removing the strongest colonies in an Apiary the 



296 THE APIARY. 

first day, and others not so strong the next, and continu- 
ing the process until all were removed, we have safely 
changed the location of an Apiary, when compelled to move 
bees in the working season. On the removal of the last 
hive, but few bees returned to the old spot. The change, as 
thus conducted, strengthened the weaker colonies, but we 
would advise bee-keepers to locate their hives in as perma- 
nent a position as possible, as this moving is not practical, 
especially with a large number of colonies. Those who do 
not winter their bees in the cellar, can easily protect them 
on their Summer stand. See chapter on Wintering (619). 
If the hives have to be placed in an exposed location with- 
out shade, it is well to protect them with roofs (369). A 
roof will be found highly economical, as it not only sheds 
the rain, but wards off the heat of the sun. 



Procuring Bees and Transferring, 

573. The beginner will ordinarily find it best to stock his 
Apiary with swarms of the current year, thus avoiding, until 
he can prepare himself to meet them, the perplexities which 
often accompany either natural or artificial swarming. If new 
swarms are purchased, unless they are large and early, they 
may only prove a bill of expense. If old colonies are pur- 
chased, such only should be selected as are healthy and 
populous. If removed after the working season has begun, 
they should be brought from a distance of at least two 
miles (13). 

If the bees are not all at home when the hive is to be 
removed, blow a little . smoke into its entrance, to cause 
those within to fill themselves with honey, and to prevent 
them from leaving for the fields. Repeat this process from 
time to time, and in half an hour nearly all will have 
returned. If any are clustered on the outside, they may 
be driven within by smoke (382). 



TRANSFERRING. 297 

The best time to buy full colonies of bees, is Spring. A 
cool day may be selected, in which to move them, as the 
bees are not flying, none can be lost. In the present thriv- 
ing state of bee-keeping, colonies of pure Italian bees (551) 
in movable frame hives (286) can usually be bought at 
very reasonable figures. If the Apiarist's means are very 
limited, black bees (549) in old style box-hives may prove 
the cheapest, if they can be found. But they should be 
promptly transferred into more practical hives, and Italian- 
ized (489) ; these manipulations will help to give to the 
novice the practice which he lacks. Italian bees and mov- 
able-frame hives are now a sine qua non of success. 

No colony should be purchased, unless it has brood in 
all stages, showing that it has a healthy queen. For trans- 
porting bees, see (587 and 603). 

Transferring Bees from Common to Movable-Frame 
Hives. 

574. This process may be easily effected whenever the 
weather is warm enough for bees to fly. 

It has sometimes been done in Winter, for purposes of 
experiment, by removing the bees into a warm room, but 
the best time for it, is when the bees have the least honey, 
aii the beginning of the fruit bloom. If it can be done on a 
warm day, when they are at work, there will be but little 
danger from robbers (664). 

It is conducted as follows : Have in readiness a box — 
which we shall call the forcing box — whose diameter is about 
the same with that of the hive from which you intend to 
drive the swarm. Smoke the hive, lift it from its bottom- 
board without the slightest jar, turn it over, and carefully 
carry it off about a rod, as bees, if disturbed, are much 
more inclined to be peaceable, when removed a short dis- 
tance from their familiar stand. If the hive is gently placed 



293 THE API-VRT. 

npside down on the ground, scarcely a bee will fly out, and 
there will be little danger of being stung. The timid and 
inexperienced should protect themselves with a bee-veil, 
and may blow more smoke among them, as soon as the hive 
is inverted. After placing it on the ground, the forcing-box 
must be put over it. If smooth inside, it should have slats 
fastened one- third of the distance from the top, to aid bees 
in clustering. Some Apiarists place the box slanting on the 
hive, so as to be able to see the bees climbing. This 
method, called open driving, is a little slower, but it may 
give the operator the chance of seeing the queen ; when the 
driving can be considered as done. 

575. As soon as the Apiarist has confined the bees, he 
should place an empty hive — which we call the decoy-hive 
— upon their old stand, which those returning from the 
fields may enter, instead of dispersing to other hives, to 
meet, perhaps, with a most ungracious reception. As a 
general rule, however, a bee with a load of honey or bee- 
bread, after the extent of her resources is ascertained, is 
pretty sure to be welcomed by any hive to which she may 
carry her treasure ; while a poverty-stricken unfortunate 
that presumes to claim their hospitality is, usually, at once 
destroyed. The one meets with as flattering a reception as 
a wealthy gentleman proposing to take up his abode in a 
country village, while the other is as much an object of dis- 
like as a poor man, who bids fair to become a public charge. 

If there are in the Apiary several old colonies standing 
close together, it is desirable, in performing this operation, 
that the decoy-hive, and the forcing-box, should be of the 
same shape and even color with that of the parent-stock. If 
they are very unlike, and the returning bees attempt to 
enter a neighboring hive, because it resembles their old 
home, the adjoining hives should have sheets thrown over 
them, to hide them from the bees, until the operation is 
completed. 



TRANSFERRING. 299' 

576. To return to our imprisoned bees : their hive should 
be beaten smartly with the palms of the hands, or two small 
rods, on the sides to which the combs are attached, so as 
to run no risk of loosening* them. These " rappings," 
although not of a very "spiritual" character, produce, 
nevertheless, a decided effect upon the bees. Their first 
impulse, if no smoke were used, would be to sally out, and 
wreak their vengeance on those who thus rudely assail 
their honied dome ; but as soon as they inhale its fumes, 
and feel the terrible concussion of their once stable abode, 
a sudden fear, that they are to be driven from their treas- 
ures, takes possession of them. Determined to prepare for 
this unceremonious writ of ejection, by carrying off what 
they can, each bee begins to lay in a supply, and in about 
five minutes, all are filled to their utmost capacity. A pro- 
digious humming is now heard, as they begin to mount into 
the upper box : and in about fifteen minutes from the time 
the rapping began — if it has been continued with but slight 
intermissions — the mass of bees, with their queen, will hang 
clustered in the forcing-box, like any natural swarm, and 
may, at the proper time, be readily shaken out on a sheet, 
in front of their intended hive. 

Now put the forcing box on their old stand, and carry 
the parent-hive to some place where you cannot be annoyed 
by other bees. 

577. It is important to make sure that the queen is 
removed, as she might be injured in the transfer of comb. 
Her presence among the driven bees can be ascertained in 
a few minutes, by the quietness of their behavior, or by the 
eggs which she drops on the bottom board, and which can 
easily be seen if a black cloth is spread under the forcing 
box (155). 

* There is little danger of loosening the combs of an old colony, but the great- 
est caution is necessary when the combs of a hive are new. If, in inverting 
such a hive, the broad sides of the combs, instead of their edges, are inclined 
downwards, the heat, and weight of the bees may loosen the combs, and ruin 
the colony. 



300 THE APIARY. 

If the queen is not with the bees, a few will come out and 
run about, as if anxiously searching for something they 
have lost. The alarm is rapidly communicated to the whole 
colony ; the explorers are reinforced, the ventilators sus- 
pend their operations, and soon the air is filled with bees. 
If they cannot find the queen, they return to their old stand, 
and if no hive is there, will soon enter one of the adjoining 
colonies. If their queen is restored to them soon after they 
miss her, those running out of the hive will make a half-cir- 
cle, and return ; the joyful news is quickly communicated 
to those on the wing, who forthwith alight and enter the 
hive ; all appearance of agitated running about on the out- 
side of the hive ceases, and ventilation, with its joyful hum, 
is again resumed.* 

If the queen has not left the old hive, it is safer to return 
the bees and to resume the driving at another time. 

578. To transfer the comb, have on hand tools for pry- 
ing off a side of the hive ; a large knife for cutting out the 
combs ; vessels for the honey ; a table or board, on which 
to lay the brood combs ; and water for washing off, from 
time to time, the honey which will stick to your hands. 

Have also a number of pieces of wire, No. 16, cut a little 
longer than the frame, and bent on the ends in this shape 

i 1 to be driven into the wood of the frame, and to hold 

the combs in place. Let a certain number of frames be in 
readiness, with three or four of these wires fastened on one 
side, and lay them on the table, wire-side down. You must 
also have your movable frame hive in readiness near the 
table, with an extracting pan (770) under it, instead of a 
bottom board, to receive what honey may drip. All this 
must be ready before disturbing the bees. 

579. Having selected the worker-combs, carefully cut 

• To witness these interesting proceedings, it is only necessary to catch the 
queen and keep her until she is missed hy her colony. For greater security, 
she should he confined in a qneen cage (536) during the experiment. 



TRANSFERRING. 301 

them rather large, so that they will just crowd into the 
frames, and retain their places in their natural position until 
the bees have time to fasten them. 

Now tack as many wires over them as may be necessary 
to hold them securely, and hang them in the hive. Drone 
combs should invariably be melted into wax. If drone-brood 
(168) is found, it can be fed to young chickens, who are 
very fond of the larvae. The bottom board should be put 
under the hive just before carrying it out. 

When the hive is thus prepared, the bees may be put 
into it and confined, water being given to them, until they 
have time to make all secure against robbers (664). 

If there is danger of robbers, it is preferable not to put 
the bees into the hive till late in the afternoon. They 
should be shaken in front of the new hive on a sheet (427) 
like a natural swarm. 

When the weather is cool, the transfer should be made 
in a warm room, to prevent the brood from being fatally 
chilled. An expert Apiarist can complete the whole opera- 
tion — from the driving of the bees to the returning of them 
to their new hive — in about an hour, and with the loss of 
very few bees, old or young. 

580. When transferring in early Spring, it should be 
remembered that the worker-brood (168) is of great value ; 
and not the least bit of it should be neglected or wasted 
unnecessarily. After a week, or more, according to the 
season, the hive may be opened and the fastening removed. 

Dr. Kirtland thus spoke of the results of transferring 
some of his colonies to the movable-comb hives. 

" I had three stocks transferred to an equal number of Mr. 
Langstroth's hives. The first had not swarmed in two years, 
and had long ceased to manifest any industry ; the others had 
never swarmed. All the hives were filled with black and filthy 
comb, candied honey, concrete bee-bread, and an accumulation 
of the cocoons and larvae of the moth. Within twenty-four hours, 
each colony became reconciled to its new tenement, and began 



302 THE APIARY. 

to labor with far greater activity than any of my old stocks. . . . 
I have now no stronger colonies than these, which I considered 
of little value till my acquaintance with this new hive." — Ohio 
Farmer, Dec. 12, 1857. 

Let not the novice, however, think that transferring bees 
is a task that requires but little skill. He who transfers suc- 
cessfully a large number of colonies may be called an expert in 
handling bees. 

The process, as it has been conducted by careless Apiar- 
ists, has resulted in the wanton sacrifice of thousands of 
colonies. 

581. For the benefit of those who are timid in manipu- 
lations, we will give Mr. Jas. Heddon's method for trans- 
ferring, (page 562 of "Gleanings" 1885). About swarming 
time (406) Mr. Heddon drives the old queen and a major- 
ity of the bees into the forcing-box, he then removes the 
old hive a few feet back, and places the new hive with 
frames full of foundation (674) on its stand, and " runs 
in " the forced swarm. It would be well to return a part 
of the bees to the old hive, as its brood might be chilled if 
the weather becomes cool. 

Twenty-one days after the transfer of the bees, he drives 
the old hive clean of all its bees, uniting them with the 
former drive. As the worker brood of the old hive is all 
hatched, there is nothing left in it but the combs and the 
honey, which can be transferred at leisure in cool weather, 
or, the honey may be extracted (749), and the comb melted 
into wax (858). 

Out-Apiaries, 

582. When an Apiarist wishes to make bee-culture his 
special occupation, he should expect to keep bees in more 
than one location. If he owns more than 120 colonies, we 
would advise his establishing an Out- Apiary. It is true 



OUT-APIARIES. 303 

that there are many drawbacks to the cultivation of bees 
four or five miles off, but there are also some advantages. 
The crop sometimes fails in one locality, and is very good 
in another a short distance away. One Apiary may be in a 
hilly country, where white clover abounds, and another on 
low lands, where Fall blossoms never fail. It is well — 
according to a familiar proverb — not to " put all our eggs 
in one basket." 

In many years' practice of keeping bees in five or six 
different Apiaries, occupying a range of country about 
twenty miles in width, we have found out that the crop will 
vary greatly in a few miles, owing to the different flora of 
the various localities, and more especially to the greater or 
less amount of rain-fall at the proper time. We have also 
learned that an Apiary placed near a large body of water 
(the Mississippi), will produce less honey than one a mile 
or two from it. owing to the smaller area of pasturage in 
reach of the bees. 

583. In establishing an Out-Apiary on some farmer's 
land, the following must be taken into consideration : Select 
a farm on which a grove or an orchard is near the house, 
some distance from the road. The place ought to be, at 
least, three miles in a bee-line from your own bee-farm. It 
is not necessary that it should be more than four miles 
away.* 

Locate your bees with some careful man. Do not trust 
a farmer who lets his fences fall, who leaves his mower in 
the yard over Winter, or puts his cows in his orchard. You 
will never rest easy, if you think that some of your hives 
may be upset any day by a vagrant cow. 

Do not put your bees on land which is tenanted. Let 

* Mr. J. M. Hambaugh, of Spring, 111. , harvested altogether different yields 
both in quality and quantity, from two Apiaries only two and a half miles 
apart . This agrees with our oft repeated experience in Apiaries three or four 
miles apart. 



304 THE APIARY. 

them be placed at some responsible farmer's own home, for 
a tenant may leave on short notice, and you cannot remove 
your bees at all seasons. 

584. The terms usually made by us for a bee location 
are as follows : The farmer furnishes us the Apiary ground, 
one spare room during extracting, and a shed or a corner 
in some empty room for our hives, combs, and fixtures. He 
also furnishes board for the Apiarist and his help while at 
work. In exchange, he gets one-fifth of the honey, and 
seventy-five cents for every natural swarm he harvests. His 
sole duties are, hiving swarms, and seeing that no accidents 
happen to the Apiary. When bees are run for extracted 
honey, the number of natural swarms is very limited (454). 
We can always find more bee locations than we want. In 
fact, we have never yet met a farmer who refused to take 
bees on such terms. 

We prefer giving the farmer a share of the crop, to giv- 
ing him a stated sum for ground rent, etc., as some of our 
leading bee-keepers do, because we thus give him an inter- 
est in our success, and he is more likely to pay attention to 
our bees, and to produce crops that will yield some honey. 
Association of interests means progress, peace, and har- 
mony. 

5S5. Six Apiaries, containing in all 600 colonies, are 
probably the greatest number that one man can oversee. 
In good localities, an Apiarist will find more profit from six 
such Apiaries, than an intelligent farmer from half a Section 
of land, and the outlay of money is less. 



HONEY-HOUSE. 

586. Few pursuits require so small an outlay for tools and 
implements as practical bee culture. Outside of the cost of 
hives, frames, sections, and honey packages, the total out" 



HONEY-HOUSE. 



305 



lay need not amount to $ 50. Almost any spare room will 
do for a honey room. 

Yet when the Apiarist wishes to be at ease, we would 
advise him to build his hone3^-house in the middle of his 
Apiary. The windows and doors of this building must all 
be provided with wire cloth netting, to exclude bees, flies, 




Fig. 99. 
WLNDO W-SCREEN . 



etc. We here give an engraving of a simple method of 
placing the wire screen, so as to allow these insects to escape. 
The netting is nailed on the outside of the window project- 
ing about six inches above. At the top three small slats are 
nailed between the frame and the netting, so as to leave a 
20 



306 THE APIARY. 

space of £ of an inch between the wire cloth and the wall, 
at the top of the window. The bees and flies that have been 
brought in with the combs, or that have entered the room, at 
some time or other, fly against the wire cloth, and soon 
find the small fissure above, through which they escape ; but, 
in returning, they smell the honey through the wire cloth, 
and forgetting that they have escaped between the wire and 
the wall, they try in vain to pass through the wire cloth. 
In the engraving, the window sashes have been removed, 
but their use in no way interferes with the screen, if the 
lower one is raised, or the upper one lowered, while there 
are bees in the room. 



SHIPPING AND TRANSPORTING BEES. 307 

CHAPTER XI. 
Shipping and Transporting Bees. 

587. In shipping colonies of bees by rail, it is not neces- 
sary to give them much ventilation, if they are sent during 
the cool weather of Spring. We have successfully shipped 
hundreds of colonies to all parts of the U. S., in early 
Spring, with no other ventilation than was afforded by the 
joints of a rough block nailed over the entrance of the hive. 
But, if the weather is warm, and the colony populous, plenty 
of air is needed. We usually replace the bottom board by 
a wire-cloth-frame protected by slats. The entrance should 
never be covered with wire-cloth, but should be entirely 
closed, for the old bees will worry themselves trying to get 
through it, and it will soon be clogged with dead bees. 
They should be given as much air as needed with the least 
possible amount of light. 

When the colony is so populous, that draught through the 
hive cannot injure the brood, we nail a screen over the 
frames also, and shade it with a board nailed on slats, run- 
ning across the ends of the hive. The closing of the portico 
alone, if there is one, with wire-cloth, is not practical, as a 
part of the swarm crowds into it and bars the ventilation. 

588. The frames should, of course, be securely fastened 
in their places. For this purpose, Mr. Root uses sticks, or 
slats, of the depth of the hive, that fit between the frames 
and hold them. 

New combs had better not be shipped at all. If there is 
plenty of fresh honey, we would advise the extracting of all 
that is unsealed, previous to shipment. When there is brood 
in every comb, and the weather is warm, it is safer to 
remove a part of the brood, and put frames of dry comb 



308 SHIPPING AND TRANSPORTING BEES. 

alternately with the frames of brood. The brood removed 
may be used to strengthen weak colonies. 

As a rule, it is better to ship small lots by Express, but 
large lots may be sent in early Spring, by freight, if they 
are not to be more than a week on the way. We have sent 
bees safely, from Illinois to Utah, by freight. 

589. In shipping bees, or colonies, it is important to 
place conspicuous cautionary cards or labels on the pack- 
ages: Living Bees, Handle with Care, This side up, Keep 
out of the sun, etc. 

The damage done by rough railroad handling, is the 
greatest item of loss, in the transportation of bees properly 
packed. If colonies are shipped in carloads, they should 
be so placed, that the combs will run lengthwise, and 
not from side to side, as in vehicles drawn by horses. Sur- 
plus racks or stories should be shipped separately. 

590. Some Apiarists, among whom we will cite the firm 
of Flanagan and Illinski of Belleville, 111., have practiced 
shipping bees by water routes to the Southern States in the 
Fail, for Winter, and returning them in Spring at the begin- 
ning of the hone} r harvest. If proper precautions are taken, 
this plan may be profitable, where low rates of transporta- 
tion can be obtained, but much judgment must be exercised 
as to the time of returning them North. As the colo- 
nies become strong very early in the South, if they are 
brought back North before the warm weather, their brood 
may become chilled, and a tendency to the developement of 
foul-brood is encouraged. 

591. Delia Rocca, in his treatise on " Bee-culture in the 
Island of Syra," speaks of the Egyptian* method of keep- 

* " Mr. Cotton saw a man in Germany who kept all his numerous stocks 
rich by changing their places as soon as the honey-season varied . 'Sometimes 
he sends them to the moors, sometimes to the meadows, sometimes to the for- 
ests, and sometimes to the hills . In France— and the same practice has existed 
in Egypt from the most ancient times— they often put hundreds of hives in a 
boat, which floats down the stream by night and stops by day."— London 
Quarterly Review. 



FLOATING APIARIES. 309 

ing bees on boats, which were floated up and down the Nile 
to take advantage of the different crops of honey at different 
points. 

It would even appear that the Greeks in the time of Colu- 
mella transported their hives to Egypt by sea, " the sea- 
son of blossoms being later than in Greece ; for after the 
month of September there is no pasture in Achaia for bees, 
whilst in Egypt flowers are in fall bloom even after that 
time, owing to the receding of the high waters of the Nile." 
He relates a laughable story about one of these floating 
Apiaries. One hive having been upset by accident on a 
boat, the enraged bees attacked the mariners unexpectedly, 
and forced them to jump into the river and swim to the 
shore, which likely, was not far distant, nor did they dare 
return, until they had provided themselves with a supply of 
smoke-producing ingredients. 

592. There is a certain amount of fascinating romance 
connected with the idea of a floating Apiary, following the 
blossoms, on the waters of the great Mississippi, or of some 
of its tributaries. An attempt of this sort was made on a 
large scale, a few years ago, by a Chicago firm. It was a 
total failure, but we are inclined to think that the failure 
was due more to the lack of practical knowledge in bee- 
keeping, on the part of the managers, than to any other 
cause. 

593. Transportation of bees from a location where 
blossoms are scarce to a good field, and returning them 
after the crop, is sometimes attended with fair success. 
Some Apiarists, located in places where the June crop alone 
can be depended upon, make it a practice to transport their 
hives to Fall pasturage every Sarnmer. We, ourselves, have 
taken 120 hives of bees, about eighteen miles, to the Missis- 
sippi river bottoms, in August, 1880, when the drouth had 
destroyed all hopes of a Fall harvest on the hills. The 
high waters of the Mississippi, which had receded a few 



310 SHIPPING AND TRANSPORTING BEES. 

weeks before, had left those immense bottom lands covered 
with a luxuriant vegetation. The result fully answered our 
anticipations. Those lately starving colonies, yielded a boun- 
tiful surplus, while their sisters on the hills had to be fed for 
Winter. But the labor of transportation, the risk incurred, 
if the colonies are strong and heavy, and the difficulty of 
transporting old bee-hives, without danger of some bees 
escaping, make the habitual shipping of bees for pasturage 
hardly advisable. 

Shipping Queens. 

594. It was in the numerous and partially successful 
attempts, which we made before 1874, to import bees from 
Italy, that we became acquainted with the conditions neces- 
sary to the shipping of queens. 

595. When they are to be confined a long time, the 
question of food is the most important. Many were the 
blunders made by. the first shippers, who imagined that 
the} T required a large amount of food, and literally drowned 
them in honey. By repeated and costly experiments, we 
ascertained that the bees that arrived in the best condition 
were those that were fed on the purest saccharine matter. 
Those that suffered the most, were those that had the most 
watery (249), or the darkest, honey (627). Water (271), 
which some Italian shippers persisted in giving them, in 
spite of what we could say, was noxious ; as the consump- 
tion of it, with the food, helped to load their abdomen with 
matter that could not be discharged (73), causing what is 
improperly called dysentery (784). Water is needed only 
in brood rearing. 

596. Old bees, or rather, bees that have begun to work 
in the field, will stand a longer trip than young bees, as the 
latter consume more honey, and need to discharge their 
abdomen oftener. 



SHIPPING QUEENS. 311 

The shipping boxes in which bees are usually sent, from 
Italy, are about three inches deep, by three inches in width, 
and four inches in length, with two small frames of comb, 
one with thick sugar syrup, the other dry. From fifty to 
seventy-five bees are put with one queen in each box. Air 
holes are cut into the sides of the boxes, and these are fas- 
tened together in a pyramidal shape, with an outer covering 
of tin, to which is fastened the handle. Queens thus put 
up, have reached us after thirty-six days of confinement with 
very little loss, and it is in this way that the greatest num- 
ber of imported queens are received. 

The usual transit from Italy to New York, takes from ten 
to fourteen days. If the importer receives his bees, through 
a custom-house broker, they will not be delayed in the cus- 
tom-house, but, if this precaution is neglected, the bees may 
be held at the custom-house for clearance, and the poor 
insects will die, martyrs to the protection (?) of the coun- 
try's interests. 

597. We might mention in connection with this, an oft- 
repeated incident, so touching and sweet, as to seem more 
like a romancer's fable, or a poetic idyl, than a mere fact. 
On receiving the boxes containing Italian queens, we noticed 
that frequently all the bees shipped with the queen had 
died, she being the only one alive in her prison. We after- 
ward found out that the faithful little subjects had denied 
themselves nourishment, and starved to death, sacrificing 
themselves, that their queen might not be deprived of food. 

Mailing Queens. 

598. To Mr. Frank Benton is due the credit of first 
mailing queens safely across the ocean, but the mailing of 
them, with more or less success on the American continent, 
has been practiced for years. Messrs. J. H. Townley and 
H. Alley, appear to have been the first to succeed, as early 
as 1868. 



312 



SHIPPING AND TRANSPORTING BEES. 



The methods have been so far improved, that our friend 
Mr. Paul Viallon, a practical queen-breeder of Louisiana, 
sent us 150 queens in the season of 1885, by mail, with the 
loss of only three or four. The cages he used were the Peet 







Fig. 100. 

THE BENTON CAGE. 

(From the " Itlustrierte Bienenzeitung .") 

cages. Yet the mails are so roughly handled generally, 
that we would not advise the sending of valuable queens in 
this way. 

The food given is the Scholz candy (613) made of 
powdered sugar and honey kneaded together. A sufficient 
number of bees must be put with the queen to keep her 
warm, but not enough to crowd the cage — six to ten bees 
are sufficient, in Summer. 

599. Of late years, at the suggestion of friend Root, the 
shipping of bees by the pound instead of in colonies, has 
been practiced, for the purpose of stocking Apiaries. Since 
the invention of comb foundation, a hive may be supplied 
with comb of the best quality, at comparatively small cost, 
and a choice queen, with a pound or two of bees, can build 
up a very fair colony, if purchased at the beginning of the 
clover harvest and properly cared for. They are shipped 
in wire- cloth cages (fig. 101) and fed with Scholz candy for 
the trip. 



MAILING QUEENS. 313 

600. How many bees are there in a pound? This ques- 
tion has been propounded to us several times. L'abbe 
Collin, by careful experiments, found that in a normal con- 
dition it takes about 5,100 bees to weigh a pound ; while in 
the swarm, when they are supplied with honey, it takes less 
than 4,300. Their weight will vary according to the 
quantity of honey they have absorbed. 

601. Parties contemplating the breeding of bees and 
queens (489) for sale, will do well to locate themselves as 
far South as convenient for easy shipment, as it is by far 
more lucrative to raise them there than in the North. This 
is very easy to understand. In the South, the bees usually 
winter safely, and breed early, so that the colonies are 
strong, while those of the Northern latitudes are still con- 
fined in their hives, struggling against the rigors of Winter. 

If an Apiarist purchases bees or queens at the proper 
time — Spring — to recruit his Winter loss, he will most likely 
buy them from some location South of him, as he can there 
obtain stronger colonies, and earlier queens, than in his own 
latitude. 

602. On the other hand, as the honey of the Northern 
States is superior in quality to Southern honey, bee-culture 
for honey production can be made fully as profitable in the 
North, in spite of the difficulties of wintering (619). 

Transporting Bees Short Distances. 

603. The box-hives may be prepared for removal by 
inverting them and tacking a coarse towel or sack over 
them, or strips of lath may be laid over wire-cloth, and brads 
driven through them into the edges of the hive. 

Confine the hive, so that it cannot be jolted, in a wagon 
with springs, and be sure, before starting, that it is impossible 
for a bee to get out. The inverted position of the hive will 
give the bees what air they need, and guard their combs 



314 SHIPPING AND TRANSPORTING 

from being loosened. It will be next to impossible, in warm 
weather, to move a hive which contains much new comb 
(215), or much fresh honey (249). 

Indeed, we would strongly urge beginners not to transport 
bees in warm weather. Just before fruit-blossom is the best 
time to transport full colonies of bees. Some advise trans- 
porting them in Winter, on sleds, but after trial we con- 
demned this method also. The joltings of a sleigh, though 
few, are hard, and will break combs ; and disturbing 
bees in cold weather should always be discouraged. When 
hauling bees in warm weather, do not load or unload them 
while the horses are hitched to the wagon. We have seen 
serious accidents resulting from a hive dropping from a 
man's hands to the ground, causing the bees to escape, and 
to sting both the driver and the horses severely. 

If a colony, in hot weather, is to be moved any distance in 
movable-frame hives, it will be advisable to fasten frames 
of wire-cloth, both to the top and bottom of the brood 
apartment, and to transport the bottom-board (344), cloth, 
mat, or surplus cap or cover (355), separately. 

Glass hives ought never to be sent off for fear of accident. 
Hives with movable-frames should be arranged in such a 
position that the frames run from side to side, and not from 
front to rear, in the carriages. 

603. (bis.) Upon arrival at the Apiary, if the weather is 
warm, you should at once set the hive in proper position, and 
release the bees. It is good policy to place a shade board 
in front of the entrance for a day or two. The object of 
this is to cause the old bees to notice that something is 
changed in their location, and to turn around and mark the 
place, instead of starting out as usual in a bee-line without 
looking behind. 

604. New swarms may be brought home in any box 
which has ample ventilation. A tea-chest, with wire-cloth 
on the top, sides, and bottom-board, will be found very con- 



TRANSPORTING- BEES SHORT DISTANCES. 315 

venient. Of late years, Mr. A. I. Root, and others, have 
practiced the shipping of bees by the pound, with or with- 
out queens, to stock Apiaries. Their wire-cloth cages 




CAGE FOR ONE-HALF POUND TIN FUNNEL FOR SHAKING THE 

OF BEES. BEES INTO THE CAGES. 

(From Root's "A. B. C") 

or boxes for shipping bees, are just the thing for hauling 
natural swarms, if made large enough (fig. 101). 

The bees may be shut up in the box as soon as they are 
hived. New swarms require even more air than old colonies, 
being full of honey and closely clustered together. They 
should be set in a cool place, and, if the weather is very 
sultry, should not be removed until night. Many swarms 
are suffocated by the neglect of these precautions. The 
bees may be easily shaken out from this temporary hive. 

When movable- comb hives are sent away to receive a 
swarm, two strips of wood, with pieces nailed to them, to go 
between the frames and keep them apart, should be laid 
over the frames, or they may be tacked fast in their proper 
places. 

The enamel-cloth (352) should be fastened on, by nail- 
ing strips all around over it. 

For the further preparation of hives to receive swarms, 
see (421). 



316 FEEDING BEES. 

CHAPTER XH. 

Feeding Bees. 

605. Few things in practical bee-keeping are more im- 
portant than the feeding of bees ; yet none have been more 
grossly mismanaged or neglected. Since the sulphur-pit 
has been discarded, thousands of feeble colonies starve in 
the Winter, or early Spring ; while often, when an unfavor- 
able Summer is followed by a severe Winter, and late 
Spring, many persons lose most of their colonies and aban- 
don bee-keeping in disgust. 

In the Spring, the prudent bee-keeper will no more neglect 
to feed his destitute colonies, than to provide for his own 
table. At this season, being stimulated by the returning 
warmth, and being largely engaged in breeding, bees re- 
quire a liberal supply of food, and many populous colonies 
perish, which might have been saved with but trifling 
trouble or expense. 

" If e'er dark .Autumn, with untimely storm, 
The honey'd harvest of the year deform ; 
Or the chill blast from Eurus' mildew wing, 
Blight the fair promise of returning Spring; 
Full many a hive, but late alert and gay, 
Droops in the lap of all-inspiring May." Evans. 

" If the Spring is not favorable to bees, they should be fed, 
because that is the season of their greatest expense in honey, for 
feeding their young. Having plenty at that time, enables them 
to yield early and strong swarms." — (YVildman.) 

A bee-keeper, whose colonies are allowed to perish after 
the Spring has opened, is on a level with a farmer whose 
cattle are allowed to starve in their stalls ; while those who 
withhold from them the needed aid, in seasons when they 



SPRING FEEDING. 317 

cannot gather a supply, resemble the merchant who burns 
up his ships, if they have made an unfavorable voyage. 

Columella gives minute instructions for feeding needy 
colonies, and notes approvingly the directions of Hyginus — 
whose writings are no longer extant — that this matter 
should be most carefully (" diligentissime") attended to. 



Spring Feeding. 

606. When bees first begin to fly in the Spring, it is 
well to feed them a little, as a small addition to their hoards 
encourages the production of brood. Great caution, how- 
ever, should be used to prevent robbing. Feeding should 
always be attended to in the evening (666), and as 
soon as forage abounds, the feeding should be discon- 
tinued. If a colony is over-fed, the bees will fill their 
brood-combs, so as to interfere with the production of 
young, and thus the honey given to them is worse than 
thrown away. 

The over-feeding of bees resembles, in its results, the 
noxious influences under which too many children of the 
rich are reared. Pampered and fed to the full, how often 
does their wealth prove only a legacy of withering curses, 
as, bankrupt in purse and character, they prematurely sink 
to dishonored graves. 

Colonies, which have abundant stores, may be incited to 
breed, by simply bruising the cappings of a part of their 
honey. This causes them to feed their queen more plenti- 
fully, and more eggs are laid. 

607. Bees may require feeding, even when there are 
many blossoms in the fields, before the beginning of the 
main harvest, if the weather is unfavorable to the honey 
flow. Large quantities of brood hatch daily, requiring 
much food, and a few days without honey sometimes en- 



318 FEEDING BEES. 

dangers the life of colonies, on the eve of a plentiful har- 
vest. 

The best way to feed destitute colonies in Spring is to 
give them combs of honey, which have been saved from the 
previous season for this purpose. If such cannot be had, 
the food may be put into an empty comb, and placed where 
it can be easily reached by the bees. 

Honey partially candied (830), may be given them, in 
small quantities, by pouring it over the top of the combs in 
which the bees are clustered. A bee deluged by sweets, 
when away from home, is a sorry spectacle ; but what is 
thus given them does no harm, and they will lick each other 
clean, with as much satisfaction as a little child sucks its 
fingers while feasting on sugar candy. 

If a colony has too few bees, its population must be 
replenished before it is fed. To build up small colonies by 
feeding , requires more care and judgment than any other 
process in bee-culture, and will rarely be required by those 
who have movable-frame hives. It can only succeed when 
everything is made subservient to the most rapid produc- 
tion of brood. 

Fall Feeding. 

608. By the time the honey-harvest closes, all the colo- 
nies ought to be strong in numbers ; and, in favorable sea- 
sons, their aggregate resources should be such that, when 
an equal division is made, there will be enough food for all. 
If some have more, and others less than they need, an equi- 
table division may usually be effected in movable-frame 
hives. Such an agrarian procedure would soon overthrow 
human society; but bees thus helped, will not spend the 
next season in idleness ; nor will those deprived of their 
surplus limit their gatherings to a bare competency. 




FALL FEEDING. 319 

After the first heavy frosts, when forage is over, all feed- 
ing required for wintering bees should be carefully attended 
to. If delayed to a later period, the bees may not have 
sufficient time to seal over their honey, which, by attracting 
moisture and souring, may expose them to dysentery. 

609. Feeders of all descriptions are made and sold.* 

In our opinion, the best feeder for liquid food is a simple 
fruit can or a jar. Mr. Root uses a can with perforated 
cover — we prefer the ordinary fruit can, 
because they are found in every house. 
After filling the can, we tie a cloth over 
the mouth of it, and invert it over a 
dish. The honey or syrup will leak 
through at first, but the atmospheric 
pressure soon stops its running, when 
the can may be carried to the hive in Kg- 102. 

this position, and set immediately over CAN FEEI)ER « 
the cluster — without the dish — in the upper story or cap, a 
part of the enamel cloth being raised for this purpose. 

The bees can then get their food, without being chilled 
even in cold weather, and they promptly store it away in 
the combs, for later use. 

It is desirable to get through with Fall feeding as rapidly 
as possible,! as the bees are so excited by it that they con- 
sume more food than they otherwise would. In feeding a 
large amount for Winter supply, we have given as many 
as five quart-cans to one colony at one time. Wooden 
feeders in the shape of troughs, as made by Root, Shuck, 
and Heddon, have the advantage over the cans of not need- 
ing removal to be refilled, but they are not so well in reach 
of the cluster. 

* Columella recommended wool, soaked in honey, for feeding bees. When 
the weather is not too cold, a saucer, howl, trough, or vessel of any kind, filled 
with straw, makes a convenient feeder. 

t Feeding colonies put late in the Fall into empty hives, 'unless combs can 
Joe given to them, will seldom pay expenses. 



320 



FEEDING BEES. 



Fig. 103. 

ROOT 
FEEDER. 



61 0. As honey is scarce in the seasons when 
Fall feeding has to be resorted to, we will give 
directions for making good syrup for Winter 
food: Dissolve twenty pounds of granulated 
sugar (use none but the best) in one gallon of 
boiling water, with the addition of five or six 
pounds of honey. Stir till well melted, and feed 
while lukewarm. 

611. Sugar candy, for feeding bees, was first 
recommended by Mr. Weigel of Silesia. If the 
candy is laid on the frames just above the clus- 
tered bees, it will be accessible to them in 
the coldest weather. It may also be put be- 
tween the combs, in an upright position, among 
the bees, or poured into combs before it is 
cold. 

To make candy for bee-feed: add water to sugar, and 
boil slowly until the water is evaporated. Stir constantly 
so that it will not burn. 

To know when it is done, dip your finger first into cold 
water and then into the syrup. If what adheres is brittle 
to the teeth, it is boiled enough. Pour it into shallow 
pans, a little greased, and, when cold, break it into pieces 
of a suitable size. 

612. Before attempting to make candy for bee feed, the 
novice will do well to read the following advice from the witty 
pen of friend A. I. Root : 

"If your candy is burned, no amount of boiling will make it 
hard, and your best way is to use it for cooking, or feeding the bees 
in Summer. Burnt sugar is death to them, if fed in cold weather. 
You can tell when it is burned by the smell, color and taste. If 
you do not boil it enough, it will be soft and sticky in warm wea- 
ther, and will be liable to drip, when stored away. Perhaps you 
had better try a pound or two, at first, while you "get your hand 
in". Our first experiment was with 50 lbs. and it all got 'scorched 1 



somehow 



Before you commence, make up your 



FALL FEEDING. 321 

mind, you will not get one drop of sugar or syrup on the floor or 
table. Keep your hands clean, and everything else clean, and 
let the women folks see that men have common sense; some of 
them at least. If you should forget yourself, and let the candy 
boil over on the stove, it would be very apt to get on the floor, 
and then you would be very likely to get "your foot in it", and 
before you got through, you might wish you had never heard of 
bees or candy either ; and your wife, if she did not say so, might 
wish she had never heard of anything that brought a man into 
the kitchen. I have had a little experience in the line of feet 
sticking to the floor and snapping at every step you take, and 
with door knobs sticking to the fingers, but it was in the honey 
house." ("A. B. C." page 48.) 

613. The Rev. Mr.Scholz, of Silesia, more than 30 years 
ago, recommended the following as a substitute for sugar- 
candy in feeding bees : 

" Take one pint of honey and four pounds of pounded lump- 
sugar; heat the honey, without adding water, and mix it with 
the sugar, working it together to a stiff doughy mass. When thus 
thoroughly incorporated, cut it into slices, or form it into cakes 
or lumps, and wrap them in a piece of coarse linen and place 
them in the frames. Thin slices, enclosed in linen, may be pushed 
down between the combs. The plasticity of the mass enables 
the Apiarist to apply the food in any manner he may desire. The 
bees have less difficulty in appropriating this kind of food than 
where candy is used, and there is no waste." 

This preparation has been used of late years with suc- 
cess, as food in mailing and shipping bees, under the name 
of "Good's candy." 

Thick sugar-syrup and candy are undoubtedly the best 
bee-food, especially when the bees are to be confined a long 
time and no brood is to be raised. 

614. An experiment of De Layens has proved that bees 
can use water to dissolve sugar (272 bis). The same writer 
relates how a French bee-keeper, Mr. Beuzelin, feeds his 
bees in Winter : 

" He saws into slices a large loaf of lump-sugar, and places 
these slices upon the frames under a, cloth. Another bee-keeper 
2i 



322 FEEDING BEES. 

told me several years ago of having saved colonies in straw hives 
by simply suspending in them, with wires, lumps of sugar 
weighing several pounds." — {Bulletin de la Suisse Romande.) 

While such methods succeed in a mild and damp climate, 
like that of France, they are not advisable in the Northern 
part of the United States, unless the bees are wintered in 
cellars (646). 

615. The prudent Apiarist will regard the feeding of 
bees — the little given by way of encouragement excepted — 
as an evil to be submitted to only when it cannot be avoided, 
and will much prefer that they should obtain their supplies 
in the manner so beautifully described by him whose inimi- 
table writings furnish us, on almost every subject, with the 
happiest illustrations : 

" So work the honey-bees, 
Creatures that, by a rule in Nature, teach 
The art of order to a peopled kingdom. 
They have a king and officers of sorts, 
Where some, like magistrates, correct at home, 
Others, like merchants, venture trade abroad ; 
Others, like soldiers, armed in their stings, 
Make boot upon the Summer's velvet buds ; 
Which pillage they, with merry march, bring home 
To the tent royal of their emperor, 
Who, busied in his majesty, surveys 
The singing masons building roofs of gold; 
The civil citizens kneading up the honey ; 
The poor mechanic porters crowding in 
Their heavy burdens at his narrow gate ; 
The sad-eyed justice, with his surly hum, 
Delivering o'er, to executors pale, 
The lazy, yawning drone." 

Shakespeare's Henry F, Act J, Scene 2. 

616. All attempts to derive profit from selling cheap 
honey or syrup, fed to bees, have invariably proved unsuc- 
cessful. The notion that they can change all sweets, however 
poor their quality, into honey, on the same principle that 



FEEDING FOR PROFIT. 323 

cows secrete milk from any acceptable food, is a complete 
delusion. 

It is true that they can make white comb from almost 
every liquid sweet, because wax being a natural secretion 
of the bee, can be made from all saccharine substances, as 
fat can be put upon the ribs of an ox by any kind of nour- 
ishing food. But the quality of the comb has nothing to 
do with its contents ; and the attempt to sell, as a prime 
article, inferior sweets, store 1 in beautiful comb, would be 
as truly a fraud as to offer for good money, coins which, 
although pure on the outside, contain a baser metal within. 

Different kinds of honey or sugar-syrup fed to the bees 
can be as readily distinguished, after they have sealed them 
up, as before. 

The Golden Age of bee-keeping, in which bees are to 
transmute inferior sweets into such balmy spoils as were 
gathered on Hybla or Hymettus, is as far from prosaic 
reality as the visions of the poet, who saw — 

"A golden hive, on a golden bank, 
Where golden bees, by alchemical prank, 
Gather gold instead of honey." 

Even if cheap sugar could be ' ' made over ' ' by the bees 
so as to taste like honey, it would cost the producer, taking 
into account the amount consumed (223) in elaborating 
wax, almost if not quite, as much as the market price of 
white clover honey ; and, if he feeds his bees after the 
natural supplies are over, they will suffer from filling up 
their brood cells. 

617. The experienced Apiarist will fully appreciate the 
necessity of preventing his bees getting a taste of forbidden 
sweets, and the inexperienced, if incautious, will soon learn 
a salutary lesson. Bees were intended to gather their 
supplies from the nectaries of flowers, and, while following 
their natural instincts, have little disposition to meddle 
with property that does not belong to them ; but, if their 



324 FEEDING BEES. 

incautious owner tempts them with liquid food, at times 
when they can obtain nothing from the blossoms, the}^ 
become so infatuated with such easy gatherings as to lose 
all discretion, and will perish by thousands if the vessels 
which contain the food are not furnished with floats, on 
which they can safely stand to help themselves. 

As the fly was not intended to banquet on blossoms, but 
on substances in which it might easily be drowned, it cau- 
tiously alights on the edge of any vessel containing liquid 
food, and warily helps itself ; while the poor bee, plunging 
in headlong, speedily perishes. The sad fate of their un- 
fortunate companions does not in the least deter others who 
approach the tempting lure, from madly alighting on the 
bodies of the dying and the dead, to share the same miser- 
able end ! No one can understand the extent of their 
infatuation, until he has seen a confectioner's shop assailed 
by myriads of hungry bees. We have seen thousands 
strained out from the syrups in which they had perished ; 
thousands more alighting even upon the boiling sweets ; the 
floors covered and windows darkened with bees, some 
crawling, others flying, and others still, so completely 
besmeared as to be able neither to crawl nor fly — not one 
in ten able to carry home its ill-gotten spoils, and yet the 
air filled with new hosts of thoughtless comers. 

We once furnished a candy-shop, in the vicinity of our 
Apiary, with wire-gauze windows and doors, after the bees 
had commenced their depredations. On finding themselves 
excluded, they alighted on the wire by thousands, fairty 
squealing with vexation as they vainly tried to force a 
passage through the meshes.* Baffled in every effort, they 
attempted to descend the chimney, reeking with sweet 
odors, even although most who entered it fell with scorched 

* Manufacturers of candies and syrups will find it to their interest to fit such 
guards to their premises; for, if only one hee in a hundred escapes with its 
load, considerable loss will be incurred in the course of the season. 



USE AND ABUSE. 325 

wings into the fire, and it became necessary to put wire- 
gauze over the top of the chimney also. (586). 

618. As we have seen thousands of bees destroyed in 
such places, thousands more hopelessly struggling in the 
deluding sweets, and yet increasing thousands, all unmind- 
ful of their danger, blindly hovering over and alighting on 
them, how often have they reminded us of the infatuation 
of those who abandon themselves to the intoxicating cup ! 
Even although such persons see the miserable victims of 
this degrading vice falling all around them into premature 
graves, they still press madly on, trampling, as it were, 
over their dead bodies, that they too may sink into the 
same abyss, and their sun also go down in hopeless 
gloom. 

The avaricious bee that, despising the slow process of 
extracting nectar from "every opening flower," plunges 
recklessly into the tempting sweets, has ample time to be- 
wail her folly. Even if she does not forfeit her life, she 
returns home with a woe-begone look, and sorrowful note, 
in marked contrast with the bright hues and merry sounds 
with which her industrious fellows come back from their 
happy rovings amid ' ' budding honey-flowers and sweetly- 
breathing fields.' ' 



326 WINTERING AND SPRING DWINDLING. 

CHAPTER XIII 

Wintering and Spring Dwindling, 

Wintering. 

619. Bees can be wintered safely in nearly all climates, 
where the Summer is long enough to enable them to store a 
Winter supply. In the natural state, the vital heat of the 
live hollow trees in which they dwell, helps to maintain a 
higher temperature than that of the outside air, and bees 
Winter so well in such abodes, that travelers, who visit 
Northern Russia, wonder how so small an insect can live in 
such inhospitable countries. 

620. As soon as frosty weather arrives, bees cluster com- 
pactly together in their hives, to keep warm. They do not 
assemble on combs full of honey, but on the empty comb 
just below the honey. They are never dormant, like, wasps 
and hornets, and a thermometer pushed up among them 
will show a Summer temperature, even when, in the open air, 
it is many degrees below zero. 

The bees in the cluster are imbricated, like the shingles of 
a roof, each bee having her head under the abdomen of the 
one above her, and so on, to the ones who are in reach of 
the honey. These pass the honey to those below them, 
which pass it to the next, and so on, to the bottom of the 
mass. 

621. When the cold becomes intense, they keep up an 
incessant tremulous motion, in order to develop more heat* 

* Everybody knows that motion transforms itself into heat, and that heat is 
hut a form of motion . . . . -whether the motion comes from a large body 
or from a small one, whether this motion be suddenly or gradually stopped, 
the result is the same, it is transformed into heat.— (Flammarion, ' 'Le Monde 
Avant la Creation de 1' Homme. ' ') 



WINTERING. 327 

by active exercise ; and, as those on the outside of the clus- 
ter become chilled, they are replaced by others. Besides, 
the fanning of wings, which causes this roar, sends the warm 
air from the top of the cluster to the bottom of the hive — 
thus warming the bees placed at the lowest part of the 
cluster ; and these, if not too chilled, take advantage of a 
warmer day, to climb above the mass, and get honey in 
their turn. 

When the weather is very cold, their humming can often 
be heard outside of the hive ; and, if the hive be jarred, at 
any time, there comes a responsive murmur, which is longer 
or shorter in duration, and lower or higher in tone, accord- 
ing to the strength of the colony. 

622. As all muscular exertion requires food to supply 
the waste of the system, the more quiet bee 3 can be kept, 
the less they will eat. It is, therefore, highly important to 
preserve them as far as possible, in Winter, from every 
degree, either of heat or cold, which will arouse them to 
great activity. 

When all the food which is in their reach is consumed, 
they will starve, if the temperature is too cold to allow them 
to move their cluster to the parts of the combs which con- 
tain honey ; hence, if the central combs of the hive are not 
well stored with honey, they should be exchanged for such 
as are, so that, when the cold compels the bees to recede 
from the outer combs, they may cluster among their 
stores. In districts where bees gather but little honey in 
the Fall, such precautions, in cold climates, will be spe- 
cially needed, as, often, after breeding is over, their central 
combs will be almost empty. 

623. It is impossible to say how much honey will be 
needed to carry a colony safely through the Winter. Much 
will depend on the way in which they are wintered, whether 
in the open air or in special depositories, where they are 
protected against the undue excitement caused by sudden 



328 WINTERING AND SPRING DWINDLING. 

and severe atmospheric changes ; much, also, on the length 
of the Winters, which vary so much in different latitudes, 
and the forwardness of the ensuing Spring. In some of 
our Northern States, bees will often gather nothing f or 
more than six months, while, in the extreme South, they 
are seldom deprived of all natural supplies for as many 
weeks. In all our Northern and Middle States, if the colo- 
nies are to be wintered out of doors, they should have at 
least twenty-five pounds of honey. 

In movable-frame hives, the amount of stores may be eas- 
ily ascertained by actual inspection. The weight of hives 
is not always a safe criterion, as old combs are heavier than 
new ones, besides being often over-stored with bee-bread. 
(263.) 

624. Practical bee-keepers usually judge of the amount 
of stores by sight. The majority of combs in an ordinary 
Langstroth hive should be about half full of honey, for out- 
door wintering, in this latitude. Remember that food is 
needed, not only to carry them through the Winter, but 
also to help them to rais j brood largely, during the cold 
days of early Spring. Bees do not waste their stores, and 
the wealthy colonies w 11 usually be found stronger, and 
better prepared for the following harvest. 

Enthusiastic beginners, in Apiculture, are apt to overdo 
extracting (753), leaving too little honey in the brood- 
chamber for Winter. If the bees are not actually crowded 
with honey, we would advise them to leave, to strong colo- 
nies, all the honey that the brood-chamber contains. Some 
may think that nine or ten heavy Quinby frames, are too 
many for a colony, for they may be wintered on six or seven. 
We will here give a bit of our experience on that point : 

625. Some 18 }-ears ago, in an Apiary away from home, 
where we were raising comb-honey (719), we had a number 
of swarms, which, in the rush of the honey-crop, we did not 
examine until their combs were built. At that time, the 



WINTERING. 329 

triangular bar (319) was the guide principally used, and 
the combs of some of these swarms were joined together in 
a way that rendered the frames immovable. In the Fail, 
we extracted (751) from the brood-chamber of nearly 
every colony, as was ihen our practice, leaving only seven 
Quinby frames on an average — for Winter. The colonies, 
that had crooked combs, were left with all their stores — ten 
frames. — because we could not disturb them without break- 
ing combs, and causing leakage and robbing, and it was not 
the proper season to transfer (574) them. These colonies 
did not have to be fed, the following Spring, became very 
strong, and yielded the largest crop. This untried-for 
result caused us to make further experiments, which proved 
that there is a profit in leaving, to strong colonies, a large 
quantity of honey, so that they will not limit their Spring 
breeding. 

626. The quality of the bee-food is an important matter 
in wintering bees. Protracted cold weather compels them 
to eat large quantities of honey, filling their intestines 
with fecal matter which they cannot void, for bees never 
discharge their faeces in the hive (73), unless they are 
confined too long, or greatly disturbed. 

Unhealthy food in prolonged confinement, sooner or later 
causes diarrhea (784), not only in wintering out of doors, 
but in cellar wintering (646), and in shipping bees long 
distances (587). 

Diarrhea, or as some call it, dysentery, in bees, is not 
properly a disease, since it is only caused by the retaining 
in the abdomen, of a large amount of excrements, which in 
ordinary circumstances would be voided regularly.* These 
excrements or faeces, from a reddish yellow to a muddy 
black in color, according to the quality of the food eaten, 

* Whenever bees have been confined for two weeks or more, they discharge 
in flight excrements which soil everything about the Apiary. The house- 
keeper avoids hanging clothes ont to dry on such days 



330 WINTERING AND SPRING DWINDLING. 

have an intolerably offensive smell. In excessive confine- 
ment, with a large consumption, from any cause, of more or 
less healthy food, when bees can no longer retain the excre- 
ments in their distended abdomen, they void them upon 
one another, upon the combs, upon the floor, and at the 
entrance of the hive, "which bees in a healthy state are 
particularly careful to keep clean." 

If bees can void them, in flight (73), before it is too 
late, they experience no bad effects, hence it is indispensa- 
ble, that bees wintered out of doors should be enabled to 
fly, at intervals, during the Winter. 

627. From numerous experiments made, it is evident 
that the purest saccharine matter will feed them with the least 
production of faeces. Hence watery, unripe, or sour honey, 
and all honey containing extraneous matter, are more or 
Jess injurious to confined bees. Dark honey containing a 
large proportion of mellose is inferior to clover-honey or 
sugar-syrup. Honey harvested from flowers, which yield 
much pollen (263), is likely to contain many floating 
grains of it, and will be more injurious than clear, trans- 
parent honey, in cases where bees will be confined to their 
hives by cold for five or six weeks. Honey- dew (255) 
seems worse yet. The juices of fruits, apples, grapes, etc. 
(877), are worst of all. In the Winter of 1880-81, we 
purchased the remains of some 90 colonies, that had been 
winter-killed, and in which the only food left was apple- 
juice, that had been carried in, during the preceding Fall, 
and had turned to cider. This unwholesome food in Winter 
confinement, by causing diarrhea, had killed bees every- 
where around us (784). 

628. Happily these instances, of bees storing apple- 
juice, are scarce, but the practical bee-keeper will not allow 
such food to remain in the hive. It can be extracted (749), 
boiled, and fed back in Spring, for bees do not suffer from 



WINTERING. 331 

this food when not confined to their hives. The same may 
be said of inferior or unripe honey (261). 

Much unsealed honey in the comb is injurious for Win- 
ter, even if the honey is ripe. This unsealed honey gathers 
moisture on account of its hygrometric properties, and be- 
comes thin and watery. In addition to this peculiarity, 
honey, when cold, condenses the moisture or steam of the 
bees, in the same manner that a pitcher of cold water con- 
denses the moisture of the air in a warm room. In some 
Winters, we have seen unsealed honey gather so much of 
the moisture of the bees that it overflowed, and ran out of 
the cells to the bottom-board. Luckily the bees usually 
consume this honey first, before Winter begins. 

629. To avoid the accidents caused by poor honey, 
some Apiarists have suggested that all the honey might be 
extracted every Fall, and sugar-syrup fed in its place. 
This system is even carried farther by the inverting 
process, which (726) compels the bees to place all their 
honey in the surplus sections (721), leaving dry all the 
combs of the brood-chamber. At the first glance, this 
course seems profitable, when the difference between the 
price of comb-honey (783) and the cost of sugar-syrup is 
considered, but when we take into acccount the trouble 
of feeding, and the poor results obtained in wintering 
the bees, we see much labor for a small profit. Having 
ascertained that bees winter better on Spring or light-col- 
ored honey (782), we no longer extract from the brood- 
chamber, avoiding the annoyance and the extra labor of 
feeding. Our experience has convinced us that, unless the 
Spring crop has failed, or the food is decidedly bad, such 
as unripe honey (249), or honey-dew (255), or fruit-juice 
(877), it is cheaper to winter bees on natural stores. 
When sugar-syrup is needed, none but the best sugar 
should be used. (See Feeding. 605.) 

630. All empty combs, whether brood-combs or surplus- 



332 WINTERING. 

combs, should be removed from the hive previous to cold 
weather, as the bees, which may cluster in them, would 
starve at the first cold spell without being able to join the 
cluster. We have seen a whole colony perish, during a 
cold fortnight in December, because they had occupied an 
extracting story (which had but little honey in it, and had 
been left on by neglect), although there was plenty of 
honey in the hive, a few inches below them. The space, left 
empty by the removal of the combs, should be filled with a 
warm material placed between the side of the hive and the 
division-board. 

631. As some bees which cluster on the outside combs 
are often unable to join the others in cold weather, it would 
be well to have holes, or Winter passages, through the 
combs, such as will allow them to pass readily, in cold 
weather, from one to another ; but if these holes are made 
before they feel the need of them, they will frequently 
close them. It is suggested that small tubes made of elder, 
the pith of which has been removed, would make permanent 
Winter-passages, if inserted in the comb, at any time. On 
a cold November day, Mr. Langstroth found bees, in a hive 
without any Winter-passages, separated from the main 
cluster, and so chilled as not to be a< >le to move ; while, 
with the thermometer many degrees below zero, he repeat- 
edly noticed, in other hives, at one of the holes made in the 
comb, a cluster, varying in size, ready to rush out at the 
slightest jar of their hive. 

It has been found quite practical to give them a passage 
above the combs, or between the combs and the straw-mat, 
or quilt, above them. The Hill device is very good for this 
purpose, although we find that the bees often have bridge- 
combs in sufficient quantity above the frames to give them 
the necessary passage. 



OUT-DOOR WINTERING. 333 



Out-Door Wintering. 

632. The usual mode of allowing bees to remain all 
Winter on their Summer stands, is, in cold climates, very 
objectionable. In those parts of the country, however, where 
the cold is seldom so severe as to prevent them from flying, 
at frequent intervals, from their hives, no better way, all 
things considered, can be devised. In such favored regions, 
bees are but little removed from their native climate, and 
their w.nts may be easily supplied, without those injurious 
effects which commonly result from disturbing them when 
the weather is so cold as to confine them to their hives. 

If the colonies are to be wintered in the open air, they 
should all be made populous, and rich in stores, even if to 
do so requires their number to be reduced one-half or more. 
The bee-keeper who has ten strong colonies in the Spring, 
will, by judicious management with movable-frame hives, 
be able to close the season with a larger Apiary than one 
who begins it with thirty, or more, feeble ones. 

632 (bis). Small colonies consume, proportionally, much 
more food than large ones, and then perish from inability 
to maintain sufficient heat. 

Bees, in small or contracted hives, especially when de- 
prived of all the honey gathered in Spring, as stated be- 
fore (629), have too scanty a population for a successful 
wintering, especially out of doors ; for, as it is by eating 
that bees generate warmth, the abdomens of a small number 
are soon filled with residues, and if the cold continues for 
weeks the bees get the diarrhea (784). We have often 
seen colonies in small hives perishing side by side with 
large ones whose bees were very healthy. 

Such facts abound, and we have but to open the bee* 
journals to find the confirmation of our statement, 



334 



WINTERING. 



In the American Bee-Journal for February 8, 1888, page 
83, Mr. J. P. Stone of Holly, Mich., asks why a colony, 
which was hived in 1859 in a large box, is prospering yet, 
while others have perished. The size given, 16X16X22, 
which shows that the box has twice the capacity of an 
8-frame Langstroth hive, answers his question. 

In the following number of the same journal, page 107, 
Mr. Heddon mentions a colony which had wintered safely 
for seven years in a box ten times larger than the Lang- 
stroth, while many others died by its side. "The colony, 
when transferred, contained about double the number of 
bees usually raised from one queen." 




Fig. 104. 
COMMON HIVES PROTECTED BY STRAW. 
(From Hamet.) 



Yet small colonies can sometimes be safely wintered, if 
their combs and honey are not spread over a large space, 
and if they are sheltered so as to maintain the proper heat. 
It is therefore indispensable to reduce the combs of a hive 
to the amount of room which the bees can best keep warm, 
by the use of the division or contracting board (349), 
without forgetting to leave a sufficient supply of good 
honey. 



UNITING 335 



Uniting. 



633. A queenless colony, in the Fall, should always be 
united to some other hive. 

If two or more colonies, which are to be united in the 
Fall, are not close together, their hives must be gradually 
drawn nearer, and the bees may then, with proper precau- 
tions, be put into the same hive. For this purpose, it is 
well to kill the poorest queen (if both have queens) and 
keep the best. This may be dispensed with, but the pru- 
dent bee-keeper will never neglect an opportunity to im- 
prove his stock. On a cool November day, the combs of 
the weakest colony that bear the cluster, should be lifted 
all together, and inserted in the other hive, after the bees 
of the latter have been thoroughly frightened with smoke. 
(382.) 

634. If, when two colonies are put together, the bees in 
the one on the old stand are not gorged with honey, they 
will often attack the others, and speedily sting them to 
death, in spite of all their attempts to purchase immunity, 
by offering their honey. The late Wm. W. Cary, of Cole- 
raine, Massachusetts, who has long been an accurate 
observer of the habits of bees, united colonies very success- 
fully, by alarming those that were on the old stand ; as soon 
as they showed by their notes, that they were subdued, he 
gave them the new-comers. The alarm which causes them 
to gorge themselves with honey, puts them, doubtless, upon 
their good behavior, long enough to give the others a fair 
chance. 

They can also be made to unite peaceably, by sprinkling a 
little sweet-scented water on them (485). It is well to put 
a slanting board in front of the entrance (603 bis) to show 
the moved bees that their location is changed. The empty 
hive should be removed from its place to prevent the bees 



336 WINTERING. 

from returning to it. The number of combs in the united 
colony can be reduced as soon as the bees have all clustered 
together. 

In this manner a strong colony with little honey, and a 
weak one with plenty of stores, can be united to form a 
good hive of bees. 

Out-Door Sheltering. 

635. The moving of a colony to a warmer or better 
sheltered place, just before Winter, is not advisable, for a 
great many bees, not having noticed their new location, 
would perish of cold, while searching for their home, and 
the population would be greatly decreased. 

In our Northern, Middle and Western States, the style 
of hive used has a considerable influence on the safety of 
out- door wintering. 

With hives that are single- walled all around, great care 
should be taken to shelter the bees from the piercing winds, 
which in Winter so powerfully exhaust their animal heat ; 
for, like human beings, if sheltered from the wind, they will 
endure a low temperature far better than a continuous cur- 
rent of very much warmer air. 

In some parts of the West, where bees suffer much from 
cold winds, their hives are protected, in Winter, by sheaves 
of straw, fastened so as to defend them from both cold and 
wet. With a little ingenuity, farmers might easily turn 
their waste straw to a valuable account in sheltering their 
bees. 

Not only can straw be used for this purpose with much 
service, but also forest leaves, corn fodder, and rushes. 
Snow is found to be a very good shelter, provided its suc- 
cessive melting and freezing does not interfere with the 
necessary ventilation. It must be removed from the en- 
trance on the approach of a warm day, 



OUT-DOOR SHELTERING. 337 

Mr. Geo. H. Beard, of Winchester, Mo., safely wintered 
ninety-three colonies out of ninety-six, in the severe Winter 
of 1884-5, in two-story Simplicity hives, (324) by removing 
the oil-cloth and replacing it with coarse sack-cloth, filling 
the upper story with maple leaves, and covering the hives, 
on all sides, except the front, with what is commonly known 
as slough-grass. This success is worthy of notice, for in 
that memorable Winter, more than two-thirds of the bees 
in the Northern States died, some Apiarists losing all they 
had. Like that of 1855-6, it will long be remembered, 
not only for the uncommon degree and duration of its cold, 
but for the tremendous winds, which, often for days to- 
gether, swept like a Polar blast over the land. 

We have, for years, wintered part of our bees on the 
Summer stand, by sheltering them on all sides but the front, 
with forest leaves closely packed, and held with a frame- 
work of lath. 

636. One of the most important requirements for success- 
ful out-door wintering, is the placing of warm absorbents, 
immediately over the cluster, to imbibe the excess of moisture 
that rises from the bees, without allowing the heat to escape. 

In March, 1856, we lost some of our best colonies, under 
the following circumstances : The Winter had been intensely 
cold, and the hives, having no upward ventilation, were 
filled with frost, — in some instances, the ice on their 
glass sides being nearly a quarter of an inch thick. A few 
days of mild weather, in which the frost began to thaw, were 
followed by a severely cold spell with the thermometer 
below zero, accompanied by raging winds, and in many of 
the hives, the bees, which were still wet from the thaw, 
were frozen together in an almost solid mass. 

As long as the vapor remains congealed, it can injure 
the bees only by keeping them from stores which they 
need ; but, as soon as a thaw sets in, hives which have no 
upward ventilation are in danger of being ruined. 
22 



338 WINTERING. 

Mr. E. T. Sturtevant, of East Cleveland, Ohio, widely 
known as an experienced Apiarist, thus gives his experience 
in wintering bees in the open air : 

" No extremity of cold that we ever have in this climate, will 
injure bees, if their breath is allowed to pass off, so that they are 
dry. I never lost a good colony that was dry, and had plenty of 
honey." 

The absorbents generally used are chaff in cushions, 
straw, forest leaves (maple leaves preferred), corn cobs, 
woolen rags, or wool waste, etc. Mr. Cheshire uses cork- 
dust, which he claims gives fourteen times as much protec- 
tion as a dead-air space. The oil-cloth, which makes an 
air-tight covering, must be first removed, and if no straw- 
mat is used, the cushion of absorbents may be placed right 
over the frames. We use the straw-mat, and fill the upper 
half-story with dry leaves, these being the cheapest and 
best absorbent at our command. 

In the coldest parts of our country, if upward absorbents 
are neglected, no amount of protection that can be given to 
hives, in the open air, will prevent them from becoming 
damp and mouldy, even if frost is excluded, unless a large 
amount of lower ventilation is given. Then they need as 
much air as in Summer. Often, the more they are protected, 
the greater the risk from dampness. A very thin hive 
unpainted, so that it may readily absorb the heat of the 
sun, will dry inside much sooner than one painted white, 
and in every way most thoroughly protected against the 
cold. The first, like a garret, will suffer from dampness 
for a short time only ; while the other, like a cellar, may be 
so long in drying, as to injure, if not destroy, the bees. 

637. If the colonies are wintered in the open air, the en- 
trance to their hives must be large enough to allow the bees to 
fly at will. Many, it is true, will be lost, but a large part 
of these are diseased; and, even if they were not, it is 






OUT-DOOR SHELTERING. 



339 



better to lose some healthy bees than to incur the risk of 
losing, or greatly injuring, a whole colony by the excite- 
ment created by confining them when the weather is warm 
enough to entice them abroad. 

If the sun is warm and the ground covered with new- 
fallen snow, the light may so blind the bees, that they will 
fall into this fleecy snow, and quickly perish. Even at such 
times, it is hardly advisable to confine them to their hives. 
A neighbor of ours killed four colonies, all he had, by 




Fig. 105. 
TWO-STORY DOUBLE-WALLED LANGSTROTH HIVE, OLD STYLE. 

closing the entrances with wire-cloth for Winter. We had 
advised him to remove it, but he did not do so because 
some one had told him that his bees would get lost in the 
snow. 

638. Great injury is often done by disturbing a colony 
of bees when the weather is so cold that they cannot fly. 
Many that are tempted to leave the cluster, perish before 
they can regain it, and every disturbance, by rousing them 
to needless activity, causes an increased consumption of 
food. On the other hand, it is of the utmost importance 



340 



WINTERING. 



that they be allowed to fly and void their excrements (73) 
whenever the weather is warm enough. At such times it 
will be advisable to clean the bottom-boards of hives, of 
dead bees, and other refuse. 

639. To show the advantages derived by the bees from 
a Winter flight, we will give our experience during one of 




■ 






111 



<m 



Fig. 106. INSIDE VIEW OF TWO-STORY DOUBLE-WALL LAXGSTROTH HIVE. 

Old style. 
a,b, c, double bottom-board d, stationary outer-case, f, portico g, entrance throus 
dou'dewall. h,>, front and back of lower hive j z, xabetted pieces ', lower houey-boan 
m, lower part of cover, o, q, cover, r, upper honey-board, u, u, t, frames, w, front ai 
rear of upper story. 



the coldest Winters, that of 1872-3. From the beginning 
of December to the middle of January, the weather was 
cold and the bees were unable to leave the hive. The 16th 



SHELTERING. 



341 



of January was a rather pleasant day. We took occasion 
of this to examine our weak colonies, being anxious in 
regard to their condition. To our astonishment, they were 
found alive, and our disturbing them caused them to fly 
and discharge their excrements. Being convinced that all 
our bees were safe, we did not disturb the strong colonies, 
and a few of the latter remained quiet. The next day, the 
cold weather returned, and lasted three weeks longer. Then 
we discovered that the weak colonies, that had had a clean- 
sing flight, were alive and well, while the strong ones which 
had remained confined, were either dead or in bad condi- 
tion. 

640. In order to shelter bees more efficiently, in out- 
door wintering, against climatic influences, Apiarists have 
devised hives, with double walls, filled at the sides, as well 
as on top, with some light material non-conductor of heat. 
Some are made on the same principle as the old two-story 
double-wall L. hive (fig. 106) without packing. 




Fig 107, (From Cheshire.) 
DOUBLE-WALL COWAN HIVE. 
ab, apron-board, e, entrance, p portico. As, hollow space tr, tun- 
nel-roof or cover to entrance, he, hive case, sc, surplus case, r, roof. 



342 



WINTERING. 



The most wide-spread style, is the chaff -hive, of A. I. 
Root. This hive is far superior to single-wall hives for out- 
door wintering. It is made in two stories, but all in one 
piece. This renders it rather inconvenient to reach down 
to the lower story, when handling bees. We, therefore, 
made our chaff hives of a single story with half -story cap, 
like that of fig. 69. This single-wall cap can be filled 
with a cushion, dry leaves, or any other absorbents. Some 
Apiarists also use one-story chaff-hives with loose bottom- 
boards that can be taken off to remove the dead bees in 
Spring. 

641. After having used some eighty chaff -hives during 
six or eight years, we find two disadvantages in them : 
1st. They are heavy and inconvenient to handle, especially 
when made to accommodate ten Quinby, or twenty Simplic- 




Fig. 108 
INSIDE OF THE CHESHIRE HIVE. 
hs, nives sides with cork-dust for packing, sc, section case. '«, section. 
s, separators fn, foundation. 



SHELTERING. 



343 



ity frames. 2d. As they do not allow the heat or cold to 
pass in and out readily, the bees in these hives may remain 
in-doors, in occasional warm Winter da} r s, while those of 
thin-front hives will have a cleansing flight. Thus, in hard 
Winters, these bees suffer as much from diarrhea (626- 
784) as others, unless the Apiarist takes pains to disturb 
them and make them fly, when necessary. 




OUTER COVERING, 
used by J. G. Norton and others. One side is removed to show the 
hive within. 



642. But we highly recommend the use of these hives, 
to the bee-keepers who do not wish to go to the trouble of 
sheltering their bees every Winter. With the chaff -hive, 
it is a matter of only a few minutes to put into Winter- 
quarters a colony, that has sufficient stores and bees. As to 
the advantage, claimed for these hives, of keeping weak 
colonies warm, in the Spring, we found it counterbalanced 
by the loss of the sun's heat during the first warm days, 



344 WINTERING. 

and we found that bees bred as fast, in our ordinary 

hives (double only on the windward sides), owing to the 
quick absorption of the sun's rays by the boards. 

643. To obtain the advantages of the chaff-hive without 
any of its disadvantages, and at the same time retain in use 
the single-wall Langstroth or Simplicity hives, some bee- 
keepers have devised outer-boxes to be placed over the col- 
onies during Winter, and removed in Spring. These can be 
filled with absorbents, and make the best and safest out- 
door shelters (Fig. 109). They are only hooked together 
by nails partly driven, and are taken off in pieces, in the 
Spring and put away, under shelter. The roofs may be 
used over the hives all Summer, if desirable. The only 
disadvantage of outer-boxes is that they may harbor mice 
or insects. Some use them, without any packing, and we 
know by experience, that even in this way, very small colo- 
nies may be wintered safely. If the hive has a portico, the 
front of the box is made to fit around it. In any case, the 
portico itself can be closed, during the coldest weather, by 
a door fitting over it, but it must be opened on warm days. 
In the extraordinary Winter of 1884-5, several bee-keepers 
of McDonough County, Illinois, among whom, we will cite 
Mr. J. G. Norton, of Macomb, safely wintered their Sim- 
plicity hives with this method, while their neighbors lost 
all, or nearly all, their bees. 

644. If the colonies are strong in numbers and stores, have 
upper moisture absorbents, easy communication from comb to 
comb, good ripe honey, shelter from piercing winds, and can 
have a cleansing flight once a month, they have all the condi- 
tions essential to wintering successfully in the open air. 



IN-DOOR WINTERING. 345 



In-door Wintering. 

645. In some parts of Europe, it is customary to winter 
all the bees of a village in a common vault or cellar. Dzier- 
zon says : 

"A dry cellar is very well adapted for wintering bees, even 
though it is not wholly secure from frost ; the temperature will 
be much milder, and more uniform than in the open air ; the bees 
will be more secure from disturbance, and will be protected from 
the piercing cold winds, which cause more injury than the 
greatest degree of cold when the air is calm. 

" Universal experience teaches that the more effectually bees 
are protected from disturbance and from the variations of tem- 
perature, the better will they pass the Winter, the less will they 
consume of their stores, and the more vigorous and numerous 
will they be in the Spring. I have, therefore, constructed a 
special Winter repository for my bees, near my Apiary. It is 
weather-boarded both outside and within, and the intervening 
space is filled with hay or tan, etc. ; the ground and plat enclosed 
is dug out to the depth of three or four feet, so as to secure a 
more moderate and equitable temperature. When my hives are 
placed in this depository, and the door locked, the darkness, 
uniform temperature, and entire repose the bees enjoy, enable 
them to pass the Winter securely. I usually place here my 
weaker colonies, and those whose hives are not made of the 
warmest materials, and they always do well. If such a structure 
is to be partly underground, a very dry site must be selected for 
it." 

In Russia, bee-keepers dig a well from twenty to twenty- 
five feet deep, and six or eight feet wide. The hives, 
which, there, are hollow trees, are then piled horizontally 
upon one another, like cord-ivood, with one end open. The 
well is filled to within six feet of the top, and a shed, made 
of straw, is built above. The bees are left there during 
the five or six months of Winter. 

In some other countries, they are kept in caves, aban- 
doned mines, or any under-ground place near at hand. 



346 WINTERING. 

646. In the North of the United States, and in Canada, 
they are generally wintered in cellars, and remain there in 
quiet from November till April, sometimes till May. 

In all localities, where the bees cannot fly at least once a 
month, in the Winter, it is best to follow this method of 
wintering. 

As Dzierzon says, a dry cellar is the best, although bees 
can be wintered in a damp cellar, but with more danger of 
loss, especially if the food is not of the best. The honey of 
Northern countries is generally of finer quality than that of 
the South. 

647. In the first place, the bees should be moved to the 
cellar, just after they have had a day's flight, at the open- 
ing of cold weather. We take only the brood-apartment 
leaving the cap, and sometimes the bottom-board, on the 
Summer stand, being careful to mark the number of each 
hive inside of its cap* so as to return it to the same location 
in Spring (32-33). In the cellar, the hives are piled one 
upon another. An empty hive or a box is put at the bottom 
of each pile, so that the bees will be as high up from the 
damp ground as possible. If the bottom- board is brought 
in with the hive, the entrance should be left open. It is 
well to raise the lower tier of hives from their bottoms with 
entrance-blocks. Some upper ventilation had better be 
given also, for the escape of moisture. If the cellar is 
damp, the combs will mould more or less ; if it is dry, they 
will keep in perfect order. 

648. After the bees are put in, they should be left in 
darkness, at the temperature that will keep them the quiet- 
est. We find that from 42 ° to 45 ° is the best. Every 
Apiarist should have a thermometer, and use it. The cost 
is insignificant, and it will pay for itself many times. 

The fact that bees, in Russia (645), are confined in 

*In a weU-regulated Apiary, each hive bears a number painted on the body. 



IN-DOOR WINTERING. 



347 



deep wells, for six months, shows that a total deprivation 
of light cannot be injurious. It prevents them from flying 
out of their hives, to which they would be unable to return, 
after flying to the windows, allured by the light, when the 
temperature of the cellar rises occasionally and unexpect- 
edly to 50 or 60 degrees. 

As bees, wintered on their Summer stands, begin to fly 
out when the temperature reaches about 50 degrees, and 
are in full flight at about 55, one can imagine how restless 
they become when the temperature of the cellar rises to 
55 or 60 degrees. They wait impatiently for the dawn of 
the day which will afford them the opportunity for flying 
out. But as the days pass and darkness continues they are 
uneasy and tired. 




Fig. 110. 
CELLAR BLIND, TO GIVE AIR WITHOUT LIGHT. 



The warmth incites them also to breed, and as they need 
water for their brood (271), some leave the hive in quest 
of it and are lost. This happens more or less every Winter. 



348 



WINTERING. 



To cool the air of the cellar, ice may be brought in and 
allowed to melt slowly over a tub. 

The Apiarist must guard against cold, also, but in winter- 
ing a large number of colonies, the heat which they gener- 
ate will usually keep the cellar quite warm in the coldest 
weather. In our experience, we have had to keep the 
cellar windows open, often, in cold weather. 

649. To allow cold air to enter without giving light, we 
have devised cellar blinds (figs. 110 and 111). When the 





Fig. in. 

CELLAR BLIND IN PLACE. 



window, inside, is raised, a wire-cloth frame is put in its 
place to keep mice out, and there is a slide on the inside 
of the shutter which can be used to give more or less air as 
the case requires. Besides, the windows of our bee-cellar 
are made with double panes, to exclude cold or heat more 



IN-DOOR WINTERING. 349 

efficiently, when they are shut. A slight quantity of pure 
air is needed at all times. 

As we have said above, when the warmer days of Spring 
come, with alternates of cold, the bees will breed a little, 
and if this is not begun too early, it will be a help to them 
rather than an injury, for they will become strong, all 
the sooner, after being taken out. 

650. A small number of colonies can be wintered in any 
ordinary cellar, quite safely, when their food is of good 
quali'y, and the temperature does not vary too much, but 
they must be quiet and in the dark. 

651. If the temperature of the cellar is too low, or too 
high, or if the food is unhealthy, the bees will have a large 
amount of fecal accumulation in their intestines, and will 
show their anxiety by coming out of the hive in clusters, 
during the latter part of their confinement. If, in addition 
to this, the cellar is damp, the comb will mould ; and when 
taken out, some colonies may desert (407, 663) their 
hives. 

652. Great loss may be incurred in replacing, upon their 
Summer stands, the colonies which have been kept in spe- 
cial depositories. Unless the day when they are put out is 
very favorable, many will be lost when they fly to discharge 
their faeces. In movable-frame hives, this risk can be greatly 
diminished, by removing the cover from the frames, and 
allowing the sun to shine directly upon the bees ; this will 
warm them up so quickly, that they will all discharge their 
faeces in a very short time.* 

* The following is an extract from Mr. Langstroth's journal: 
. '• Jan. 31st, 1857.— Removed the upper cover, exposing the bees to the full 
heat of the sun, the thermometer being 30° in the shade, and the atmosphere 
calm. The hive standing on the sunny side of the house, the bees quickly 
took wing and discharged their fasces. Very few were lost on the snow, and 
nearly all that alighted on it took wing without being chilled More bees 
were lost from other hives which were not opened, as few which left were 
able to return : while, in the one with the cover removed, the returning bees 
were able to alight at once among their warm companions." 



350 WINTERING. 

653. If more than one hundred colonies are wintered in 
the cellar, and it is desired to remove them all the same 
day, enough help should be secured to put them all on their 
stands before the warm part of the day is over. It is far 
better to keep them in the cellar even one week longer, 
than to take them out when the weather is so cold that they 
cannot cleanse themselves immediately ; to our mind, 45 ° 
in the shade, or 55 ° in the sun, is the lowest temperature 
in which it is best to put bees out. 

654. As bees remember their location, it is important to 
return each colony to its own place. If this is not done, 
the confusion may cause some colonies to abandon their 
hives. Dzierzon also advises placing them on their former 
stands, as many bees still remember the old spot. If it is 
desirable to remove some hives to a new location, a slanting 
board (603 bis) should be placed in front of the hive. All 
the bottom-boards should be cleaned of dead bees or rub- 
bish, without delay. 

655. If the hives of an Apiary are all removed from the 
cellar on the same day, there will be but little danger of 
robbing, for they are somewhat bewildered when first 
brought out ; but if some are taken out later than others, 
the last removed will be in danger, unless some precautions 
are taken. 

656. If the bees that are wintering in the cellar, are 
found to be restless, it may be good policy to give them 
some water (271), or to take them out on a warm day 
when the temperature is at least 45 ° in the shade, to 
let them have a flight, and return them to the cellar after- 
ward. We do not advise it as a practice however. On the 
contrary, if they are quiet, it is better to keep them in- 
doors, till the early Spring days have fairly come, to avoid 
what is called Spring-dwindling (659). 

657. Those, who have no cellar, can successfully win- 
ter their bees in clamps or silos as advised by the Rev. Mr, 



IN-DOOR WINTERING. 



351 



Scholz, of Lower Silesia, widely known in Germany for his 
skill in bee-keeping. These clamps are made similar to 




Fig. 112. (From L'Apicoltore, of Milan.) 

BEE CLAMP FOR WINTERING. 

I, air draft, d, roof. 

those in which farmers place apples, potatoes, turnips, etc., 
to preserve them during cold weather. The only objection to 





Fig. 113. 
HOW TO PILE THE HIVES. 



Fig. 114. 
GROUND PLAN OP A BEE CLAMP. 



this mode, is the dampness of the ground in wet and warm 
Winters. The hives are put, on a bed of straw, in a pyra- 
midal form (fig. 113), and covered, first with old boards, 



352 WINTERING. 

then with a thick layer of straw, and another, of earth. 
Wooden pipes are placed at the bottom (fig. 114), and 
one in the shape of a chimney, at the top, for an air-draft. 
The requisites are the same as in cellar wintering, an equal 
temperature, sufficient ventilation, a fairly dry atmosphere, 
and quiet. 

658. We must warn novices against the wintering of 
bees in any repository in which the temperature descends 
below the freezing point. In such places the bees consume 
a great deal of honey, and they soon become restless, for 
want of a flight. Their Summer stand even without shelter, 
is far safer than any such place, because they can at least 
take advantage of any warm Winter day to void their ex- 
crements. These facts are demonstrated beyond a doubt. 

Spring Dwindling. 



659. When the conditions necessary to the successful 
wintering of bees are not complied with, and they have 
suffered from diarrhea (784), many colonies may be lost 
by Spring dwindling, especially if the Spring is cold and 
backward. Even colonies, which appeared to have gone 
through the Winter strong in numbers, may slowly lose 
bee after bee till the queen alone remains in the hive. This 
is sometimes mistaken for desertion (407), as will be seen 
in the following paragraph, which we quote from The 
London Quarterly Review, and in which the author attrib- 
utes to lack of loyalty in the bees, that which evidently 
must have been due only to Spring dwindling : 

"Bees, like men, have their different dispositions, so that even 
their loyalty will sometimes fail them. An instance not long 
ago came to our knowledge, which probably few bee-keepers 
will credit. It is that of a hive which, having early exhausted 
its store, was found, on being examined one morning, to be 



SPRING DWINDLING. 353 

utterly deserted. The comb was empty, and the only symptom 
of life was the poor queen herself, ' unfriended, melancholy, 
slow,' crawling over the honeyless cells, a sad spectacle of the 
fall of bee-greatness. Marius among the ruins of Carthage — 
Napoleon at Fontainebleau — was nothing to this." 

Several such instances, caused by Spring dwindling, with 
subsequent robbing of the honey, were observed by us. 
Colonies are thus destroyed as late as April and May. 

660. In some instances, the enlarged abdomen of the 
bees will show that they are suffering from constipation — 
or inability to discharge their faeces, even though they may 
have voided their abdomen since their long confinement. 
Probably i heir intestines are in an unhealthy condition. In 
the worst cases of Spring dwindling, sometimes, even the 
queens show signs of failing, and eventually disappear. 
This may occur also with colonies that were wintered in 
the cellar, if they have suffered from diarrhea, or have been 
removed too early. 

There is another sort of Spring dwindling caused by the 
loss of working bees in cold Springs, while in search of 
water (271), or pollen (263), for the brood. 

661. To avoid losses, or to check them as far as possible, 
after a hard Winter, it is indispensable that the following 
be observed : 

1st. The hives should be located in a warm, sunny, well- 
sheltered place. All Apiaries that are placed in exposed 
windy situations, or facing North, suffer most from Spring 
dwindling. 

2d. The number of combs in the hive should be reduced 
in early Spring, with the division-board or contractor, to suit 
the size of the cluster (349). This helps the bees to keep 
warm and raise brood. The space must again be enlarged 
gradually, when the colony begins to recruit. 

We consider this contraction of the hive as altogether 
indispensable. Let us suppose that, in early Spring, we 
23 



354 SPRING DWINDLING. 

have a colony whose population is so much reduced that it 
cannot warm, to the degree needed for breeding, more than 
500 cubic inches of space. If we leave the brood-chamber 
without contraction, as its surface, in a 10-frame Langstroth 
hive, will be about 270 square inches, the cubic space 
heated will have about two inches in thickness at the top, 
since heat always rises. If, on the contrary, we have 
reduced the number of frames to three, the depth of the 
space warmed at the top will amount to more than three 
times as much, or to more than six inches. Thus, the 
bees will not onty be more healthy, but the lajdng of the 
queen, not being delayed by the cold, and the number of 
the bees increasing faster, they will be able to repay the 
bee-keeper for the care bestowed, instead of dwindling, or 
remaining worthless for the Spring crop. 

3d. The heat should be concentrated in the brood apart- 
ment, by all means, and not allowed to escape above. The 
entrance also must remain reduced. 

4th. The bees should be provided with sufficient stores 
of honey, pollen, and water. 

662. Apiarists in general, do not attach enough import- 
ance to the necessity of furnishing water (271) to bees in 
cold Springs, in order that they may sta} T at home in quiet. 
Although Berlepsch laid too much stress on the question of 
water, the lack of which he even said was the cause of ctys- 
entery, yet he was right in calling our attention to the need 
of it for breeding : 

" The Creator has given the bee an instinct to store up honey 
and pollen, which are not always to be procured, but not water, 
which is always accessible in her native regions. In Northern 
latitudes, when confined to the hive, often for months together, 
they can obtain the water they need only from the watery parti- 
cles contained in the honey, the perspiration which condenses 
on the colder parts of the hive, or the humidity of the air which 
enters their hives. 

" In March and April, the rapidly-increasing amount of brood 



DESERTING. 355 

causes an increased demand for water ; and when the thermom- 
eter is as low as 45 o , bees may be seen carrying it in at noon, 
even on windy days, although many are sure to perish from cold. 
In these months, in 1856, during a protracted period of unfavor- 
able weather we gave all our bees water, and they remained at home 
in quiet, whilst those of other Apiaries were flying briskly in search 
of water. At the beginning of May, our hives were crowded with 
bees; whilst the colonies of our neigbors were mostly weak. 

"The consumption of water in March and April, in a populous 
colony, is very great, and in 1856, one hundred colonies required 
eleven Berlin quarts per week, to keep on breeding uninterruptedly. 
In Springs where the bees can fly safely almost every day, the 
want of water will not be felt. 

" The loss of bees by water-dearth, is the result of climate, and 
no form of hive, or mode of wintering, can furnish an absolutely 
efficient security against it." — (Translated from the German, by 
S. Wagner.) 

That bees cannot raise much brood without water, unless 
they have fresh-gathered honey, has been known from the 
times of Aristotle. Buera of Athens (Cotton, p. 104), 
aged 80 years, said in 1797 : 

"Bees daily supply the worms with water; should the state of 
the weather be such as to prevent the bees from fetching water 
for a few days, the worms would perish. These dead bees are 
removed out of the hive by the working-bees if they are healthy 
and strong ; otherwise, the stock perishes from their putrid ex- 
halations." 

In any movable-frame hives, water can be given to the 
bees, by pouring it into the empty cells of a comb. 



Deserting. 



663. We have shown (407) that bees sometimes desert 
their hives, when the colony is too weak, or short of stores, 
or suffering from dampness, mouldy combs, etc., etc. 
This desertion, which differs from natural swarming in 



356 SPRING DWINDLING. 

this, that it may take place in any season, and that the 
deserting bees do not raise any queen-cells previously, is 
more frequent in cold backward Springs than at any other 
time. 

At different times we have seen bees deserting their 
hives and forsaking their brood for lack of pollen (264). 
A comb containing pollen having been put in their hive 
and the bees returned they remained happy. But the 
worst of these desertions is when the bees have suffered 
while wintered in-doors (651.) These colonies abandon 
their hives very soon after being replaced on their Sum- 
mer stands. When such desertion is feared, it is better 
not to put out more than one dozen colonies at one time, 
and to prepare a few dry combs, in clean hives, to hive 
the swarm as soon as possible ; for, too often some other 
colonies following the example, mix with the first, the 
queens are balled (538), causing great annoyance and 
loss to the bee-keeper. Such swarms should be hived on 
clean dry comb, and furnished with honey and pollen. 
The capacity of the hive in which they are put should be 
reduced to suit the size of the swarm, and increased very 
cautiously, from time to time, when the bees seem to be 
crowded ; for warmth is indispensable to bees in Spring. 
The condition of such colonies must be regularly ascer- 
tained and their wants supplied. 

We would refer those who think that " it is too much 
trouble" to examine their hives in the Spring, to the prac- 
tice of the ancient bee-keepers, as set forth by Columella: 
" The hives should be opened in the Spring, that all the 
filth which was gathered in them during the Winter may be 
removed. Spiders, which spoil their combs, and the worms 
from which the moths proceed, must be killed. When the 
hive has been thus cleaned, the bees will apply themselves 
to work with the greater diligence and resolution. ,, The 
Booner those abandon bee-keeping, who consider the proper 



DESERTING. 357 

care of their bees as "too much trouble," the better for 
themselves and their unfortunate bees. 

In making this thorough cleansing, the Apiarist will 
learn which colonies require aid, and which can lend a 
helping hand to others ; and any hive needing repairs, may 
be put in order before being used again. Such hives, if 
occasionally re-painted, will last for generations, and prove 
cheaper, in the long run, than any other kind. 



358 ROBBING AND HOW PREVENTED. 

CHAPTER XIV. 

Robbing, and How Prevented. 

An ounce of prevention is worth a ton of cure. 

664. Bees are so prone to rob each other, in time of 
scarcity, that, unless great precautions are used, the Apia- 
rist will often lose some of his most promising colonies. 
Idleness is, with them, as with men, a fruitful mother of 
mischief. They are, however, far more excusable than the 
lazy rogues of the human family ; for they seldom attempt 
to live on stolen sweets, when they can procure a sufficiency 
by honest industry. 

As soon as they can leave their hives in the Spring, they 
may begin to assail the weaker colonies. In this matter, 
the morals of our little friends seem to be sadly at fault ; 
for, those colonies which have the largest surplus are — like 
some rich oppressors — the most anxious to prey upon the 
meagre possessions of others. 

If the marauders, who are ever prowling about in search 
of plunder, attack a strong and healthy colony, they are 
usually glad to escape with their lives from its resolute 
defenders. The bee-keeper, therefore, who neglects to 
watch his needy colonies, and to assist such as are weak or 
queenless, must count upon suffering heavy losses from 
robber-bees. 

665. It is sometimes difficult, for the novice, to discrim- 
inate between the honest inhabitants of a hive, and the 
robbers which often mingle with them. There is, however, 
an air of roguery about a thieving bee which, to the expert, 
is as characteristic as are the motions of a pickpocket to a 
skillful policeman. Its sneaking look, and nervous, guilty 



ROBBING. 359 

agitation, once seen, can never be mistaken. It does not, 
like the laborer carrying home the fruits of honest toil, 
alight boldly upon the entrance-board, or face the guards, 
knowing well that, if caught by these trusty guardians, its 
life would hardly be worth insuring. If it can glide by 
without touching any of the sentinels, those within — taking 
it for granted that all is right — usually permit it to help 
itself. 

Bees which lose their way, and alight upon a strange 
hive, can readily be distinguished from these thieving 
scamps. The rogue, when caught, strives to pull away 
from his executioners, while the bewildered unfortunate 
shrinks into the smallest compass, submitting to any fate 
his captors may award. 

These dishonest bees are the "Jerry Sneaks'' of their 
profession, and after following it for a time, lose all taste 
for honest pursuits. Constantly creeping through small 
holes, and daubing themselves with honey, their plumes 
assume a smooth and almost black appearance, just as the 
hat and garments of a thievish loafer, acquire a "seedy" 
aspect. 

Dzierzon thinks that these black bees, which Huber has 
described as so bitterly persecuted by the rest, are nothing 
more than thieves. Aristotle speaks of " a black bee which 
is called a thief." 

Some bee-keepers question whether a bee that once 
learns to steal ever returns to honest courses. The writer 
has known the value of an Apiary to be so seriously im- 
paired by the bees beginning early in the season to rob 
each other, that the owner was often tempted to wish that 
he had never seen a bee. 

666. Yet, we should hardly blame them for their rob- 
bing propensities. With them, as with men, much depends 
on the education which they are allowed to receive. Their 
nature teaches them to hunt for sweets industriously, 



360 ROBBING AND HOW PREVENTED. 

wherever they can find them, and any sweet, which they 
can reach, by the most strenuous efforts, is considered by 
them, at once, as their private property. Were it not for 
this disposition of the bee, to hunt for sweets everywhere, 
and take them home, the honey of those colonies that dwell 
in the woods, and frequently perish during the Winter, 
would be wasted. The propensity to rob is acquired only 
during a dearth of honey in the flowers ; for bees have a 
much greater relish for fresh honey, as produced in the blos- 
soms, than for any other sweet on earth. This is so true,, 
that in a day of abundant harvest, honey may be left ex- 
posed where bees can reach it, without being touched, or 
even approached, by a single bee, for hours ; while, if 
placed in the yery same spot during a dearth of honey, it 
will be covered with bees in very few minutes. 

If the bee-keeper would not have his bees so demoralized 
that their value will be seriously diminished, he will be 
exceedingly careful in time of scarcity to prevent them from 
robbing each other. If the bees of a strong colony once 
get a taste of forbidden sweets, they will seldom stop until 
they have tested the strength of every hive. Even if all the 
colonies are able to defend themselves, many bees will be 
lost in these encounters, and much time wasted ; for bees, 
whether engaged in robbing, or battling against robbers, 
lose both the disposition and the ability to engage in use- 
ful labors. 

667. An experienced bee-keeper readily perceives when 
any robbing is going on in his Apiary. Bees are flying 
vagrantly about, hunting in nooks and corners, and at alii 
the hive-crevices. Extensive robbing causes a general up- 
roar, and the bees of all the hives are much more disposed 
to sting. The robbers sally out with the first peep of light, 
and often continue their depredations until it is so late that 
they cannot find the entrance to their hive. Some even 
pass the night in the plundered colony. 



ROBBING AND HOW PREVENTED. 361 

The cloud of robbers arriving and departing need never 
be mistaken for honest laborers (174) carrying, with un- 
wieldy flight, their heavy burdens to the hive. These bold 
plunderers, as they enter a hive, are almost as hungry-look- 
ing as Pharaoh's lean kine, while, on coming out, they show 
by their burly looks that, like aldermen who have dined at 
the expense of the city, they are stuffed to their utmost 
capacity. 

668. When robbing-bees have fairly overcome a colony, 
the attempt to stop them — by shutting up the hive, or by 
moving it to a new stand — if improperly conducted, is often 
far more disastrous than allowing them to finish their work. 
The air will be quickly filled with greedy bees, who, unable 
to bear their disappointment, will assail, with almost fran- 
tic desperation, some of the adjoining hives. In this way, 
the strongest colonies are sometimes overpowered, or thous- 
ands of bees slain in the desperate contest. 

How to Stop Robbing. 



When an Apiarist perceives that a colony is being 
robbed, he should contract the entrance (339), and, if 
the assailants persist in forcing their way in, he must close 
it entirely. In a few minutes the hive will be black with 
the greedy cormorants, who will not abandon it till they 
have attempted to squeeze themselves through the smallest 
openings. Before they assail a neighboring colony, they 
should be thoroughly sprinkled with cold water, which will 
somewhat cool their ardor. 

Unless the bees, that were shut up, can have an abund- 
ance of air, they should be carried to a cool, dark place, 
after the Apiarist has allowed the robbers to escape out 
of it. Early the next morning they must be examined, 
and, if necessary, united to another hive. 



362 ROBBING AND HOW PREVENTED. 

i; In Germany, when colonies in common hives are being rob- 
bed, they are often removed to a distant location, or put in a 
dark cellar. A hive, similar in appearance, is placed on their 
stand, and leaves of wormwood and the expressed juice of the 
plant are put on the bottom-board. Bees have such an anti- 
pathy to the odor of this plant, that the robbers speedily forsake 
the place, and the assailed colony may then be brought back. 

" The Rev. Mr. Kleine says, that robbers may be repelled by 
imparting to the hive some intensely powerful and unaccus- 
tomed odor. He effects this the most readily by placing in it, in 
the evening, a small portion of musk, and on the following morn- 
ing the bees, if they have a healthy queen, will boldly meet 
their assailants. These are nonplussed by the unwonted odor, 
and, if any of them enter the hive and carry off some of the 
coveted booty, on their return home, having a strange smell, 
they will be killed by their own household. The robbing is 
thus soon brought to a close." — S. Wagner. 

It will often be found that a hive which is overpowered 
by robbers has no queen, or one that is diseased. 

669. One of the best methods which we have found to 
stop the robbing of one hive by another, when the robbed 
colony is worth saving, is to exchange them ; i. e. to place 
the robbed colony on the stand of the robbing colon}^ and 
vice versa. The robbing colony can usually be found by 
sprinkling the returning bees with flour, as they come out 
of the robbed hive, and watching the direction which they 
take. It can also often be detected by the activity of 
its bees, if the neighboring hives are idle, especially 
after sunset. 

This method, however, cannot be practiced when the 
robbing and the robbed colonies do not belong to the same 
person ; or when the robbing is carried on by many hives 
at one time, although, in the latter case, the exchange of 
stands between the strongest of the robbing hives and the 
weak robbed colony, in the evening, and the reducing of the 
entrances of both, usually has a good result. The old 
robber bees, bewildered by this exchange, make their home 
in the robbed colony, since they find it on the stand where 



HOW TO STOP ROBBING. 363 

they are accustomed to bring their honey ; and they defend 
it with as much energy as they used in attacking it before. 
See Quinby's "Mysteries of Bee-Keeping" N. Y., 1866. 

670. We read in the British Bee-Journal that a car- 
bolized sheet (384) can be used to stop robbing, if spread 
in front of the robbed hive. This same sheet, spread on 
the hive as soon as opened while extracting (749), and on 
the surplus box where the combs are placed (768), dis- 
pleases the robbers and protects the comb, 

671. There is a kind of pillage which is carried on so 
secretly as often to escape all notice. The bees engaged 
in it do not enter in large numbers, no fighting is visible, 
and the labors of the hive appear to be progressing with 
their usual quietness. All the while, however, strange bees 
are carrying off the honey as fast as it is gathered. After 
watching such a colony for some days, it occurred to us 
one evening, as it had an unhatched queen, to give it a 
fertile one. On the next morning, rising before the rogues 
were up, we had the pleasure of seeing them meet with 
such a warm reception, that they were glad to make a 
speedy retreat. 

This is another proof that discouragement caused by 
queenlessness often leads to the loss of a colony. 



Prevention. 



672. If the Apiarist would guard his bees against dis- 
honest courses, he must be exceedingly careful, in his various 
operations, not to leave any combs or any honey where bees 
can find them, for, after once getting a taste of stolen honey, 
they will hover around him as soon as they see him operating 
on a hive, all ready to pounce upon it and snatch what they 
can of its exposed treasures. 



364 ROBBING AND HOW PREVENTED. 

In times of scarcity, food should never be given to the 
bees in the day time, but only in the evening, always 
inside of the hive and above the combs. The feeding of 
bees (605) in the day time causes robbing in two ways. 
It excites the bees which are fed, and induces them to go 
out to hunt for more, and the smell of the food given 
attracts the bees of the other hives. Hence follows fight- 
ing and trouble. But, above all things, the Apiarist must 
try to keep his colonies strong. 

When there is a scarcity of blossoms, the entrance of 
the hive should be lessened, to suit the needs of the colony, 
by moving the entrance blocks (339). If the hive con- 
tains more combs than the bees can well defend, the 
number of the combs should be reduced by the use of the 
division board (349). 

073. It is especially with weak colonies that care should 
be taken, in Spring or Fall. The strong hives being better 
able to keep warm, their bees fly out earlier in the day and 
will readily discover the weaker ones, which, unless their 
honey is protected, they will soon overpower. 

When the above instructions are carried out, if thieves 
try to slip into a feeble colony they are almost sure to be 
overhauled and put to death; and if robbers are bold 
enough to attempt to force an entrance, as the bottom- 
board slants forward (327) it gives the occupants of the 
hive a decided advantage. Should any succeed in entering, 
they will find hundreds standing in battle-array, and fare 
as badly as a forlorn hope that has stormed the walls of a 
beleaguered fortress, only to perish among thousands of 
enraged enemies. 

Cracks and openings in disjointed hives, should be se- 
curely closed with yellow clay, until the bees can be trans- 
ferred into better abodes. 

When the hives are opened, the work must be performed 
speedily and carefully ; and, if any great number of 



PREVENTION. 365 

robbers show themselves during the operation, it is well, 
after closing the hive, and reducing the entrance, to place a 
bunch of grass (fine grass or fine weeds preferred) over it, 
for an hour, or till the temporary excitement has subsided. 
The guardian bees station themselves in this grass and 
chase out robbers much more easily than they could other- 
wise. The robbers themselves recognize that their chances 
of "dodging in" are slim, and give up the undertaking. 
We have never had any trouble with robbers after closing 
a hive in this way. 

When the robbed colony is weak, the robbing may be 
abated by preventing any bees from entering it till evening, 
when other colonies have stopped flying ; allowing, at the 
same time, any bee that wishes to depart from it, and clos- 
ing the entrance till late in the morning. By this course 
most of the robbers will be tired of their useless attempts, 
while the remaining workers of the robbed hive will be 
ready to repel the attacks. 

When none of these methods succeed, a small comb of 
hatching Italian bees (551) may be given, with the nec- 
essary precautions (480), to the weak colony, and the 
hive placed in the cellar for a few days. The hatched Ita- 
lians will receive the intruders warmly when the hive is 
brought back. 

The Italian bees (551) defend their hives much better 
than the black (549) against the intrusion of robbers, and 
the Cyprians and Syrians (559) surpass even the Italians. 

When a comb of honey breaks down in a hive from any 
cause, it should be removed promptly, and the bottom- 
board should be exchanged for a clean one at once. If 
any drops of honey fall about the Apiary, it is best to 
cover them up with earth promptly. In short, no honey 
should be left exposed, where bees can plunder it. 



366 COMB FOUNDATION. 



CHAPTER XV. 

Comb Foundation. 

674. The invention and introduction of comb founda- 
tion, with the use of movable frames (286), marked an 
important step in the progress of practical bee-culture. 
The main drawback to the perfect success of movable- 
frame hives was the difficulty of always obtaining straight 
combs in the frames (318). Although the bevelled top 
bar (319) often secured this object, yet, in msmj instances, 
the bees deviated from this guide and fastened their combs 
from one frame to another ; and if the matter was not 
promptly attended to, the combs of the hive became as 
immovable as those of box hives. One frame slightly out 
of place was a sufficient incentive for the bees to fasten 
two frames together. In the management of four large 
Apiaries, previous to the introduction of comb foundation, 
we found that, in spite of our efforts, a certain number of 
colonies would so build their combs, that only a part of the 
frames were movable without the use of a knife. Even the 
combs that were built in the right place were made some- 
what waving, or bulged in spots, and were thus rendered 
unfit for such interchanges as are daily required in ordinary 
manipulations. 

675. Another drawback to success was the building of 
drone comb (225). We have had colonies in which nearly 
one-fourth of the combs were drone-comb. In such hives the 
number of drones that might be raised would be sufficient 
to consume the surplus honey. To be sure, with movable- 
frame hives, such combs can be removed, but the difficulty 



ADVANTAGES. 367 

consists in procuring straight and neat worker-combs to 
replace them ; for if we simply remove the drone-combs, the 
bees often replace them with the same kind (233). 

676. Good straight ivorker-comb, not too old, is the most 
valuable capital of the Apiarist (442). For years, be- 
fore the introduction of comb-founclation, we had been 
in the habit of buying all the worker-comb from dead col- 
onies that we could find, but we never had enough. 

The consideration of the above important points, and of 
the great cost of comb to the bees (233), had long ago 
drawn the attention of German Apiarists to the possibility 
of manufacturing the base, or foundation, of the comb. 

677. In 1857, Johannes Mehring invented a press to 
make wax tvafers, on which the rudiments of the cells were 
printed. Those only, who experienced the obstacles which 
this industry presents, can form an idea of the energy and 
perseverance that were required to succeed as he did. 

The foundation made by him then, was far from being 
equal to what is now made. The projections of the cell- 
walls were too rudimentary, sometimes not printed, and the 
bees often built drone- cells instead of worker-cells; but 
these imperfect efforts were the beginning of an industry 
which has proved of immense advantage to bee-keepers, and 
has spread like wild- lire wherever bees are kept. 

678. Another Apiarist, Feter Jacob, of Switzerland, 
improved on the Mehring press, and in 1865, some of his 
foundation was imported to America, by Mr. H. Steele, of 
Jersey City (Am. Bee-Journal, Vol. 2, page 221), and tried 
by Mr. J. L. Hubbard, who reported favorably upon it. In 
1861, Mr. Wagner had secured a patent in the United 
States, for the manufacture of artificial honey comb-founda- 
tion by whatever process made. His patent was never put 
to use, and rather retarded the progress of this industry in 
America. 

679. The first comb-foundation made in America, was 



368 



COMB FOUNDATION. 



manufactured in 1875, by a German, Mr. F. Weiss, very 
probably on an imported machine. Mr. A. I. Root, to whom 




Fig. 115. 

THE ORIGINAL '' ROOT " MILL. 

(From Root's "A. B. C") 



the credit is due* of popularizing the invention the world 
over manufactured a large roller-mill, in February, 1876, 

* Some people think that when a man has made money by putting in practice 
the ideas of another, he is not entitled to any credit for it. But he, whose in- 
quisitiveness has discovered the value of an invention, and whose energy has 
put it into practice, is almost as necessary and useful to the world as the orig- 
inal inventor himself. 



Plate 12. 




JOHANNES MEHRING, 
Inventor of Comb-Foundation. 



This Apiarist is mentioned pages 51 and 367. 



FOUNDATION MILLS. 369 

with the help of a skilled mechanic, A. Washburne. He 
sold hundreds of these mills afterwards. 

680. In the practical use of comb-foundation, the most 
sanguine expectations were realized : 

1. Every comb that is. built on foundation is as straight 
as a board, and can be moved from one place to another, 
in any hive, without trouble. 

2. The combs built on worker-foundation are exclusively 
worker-combs, with .the exception of occasional patches, 
when the foundation sags slightly. 

3. All the wax produced by the bees, and gathered by 
the Apiarist from scraps, old combs, or cappings, is returned 
to the bees in this shape, instead of being sold at the com- 
mercial value of beeswax, which is several times less than 
its actual cost (223). The cost of foundation for brood- 
combs is not very great, especially if we consider that this 
capital is not consumed, but only employed ; as the wax 
contained in the combs represents at least one-half of the 
primary value of the foundation, and can be rendered again, 
after years of use, none the worse for wear. 

681. Different machines are in use in the United States. 
The flat-bottom foundation has the reputation of being the 
most regular, and thinnest ; its main defect being the un- 
natural flat base of the cells, which renders it easier to 
manufacture, but objectionable to the bees, who have to 
remodel its base in using it (213). It is manufactured 
with or without wires imbedded in it, to help fasten it in 
the frames. 

The Pelham-mill also makes an unnaturally-shaped foun- 
dation, the base of the cells being two instead of three- 
sided. This mill has the advantage of being very cheap, 
and is more easily manipulated than some of the others. 

682. The Given-press makes foundation similar to that 
of the old European presses. It has been highly praised by 

24 



370 COMB FOUNDATION. 

a number of Apiarists. As it is the easiest working of all 
foundation-machines, a great many, who could not suc- 
ceed in making foundation on the mills, succeeded on this 
press. Another advantage claimed for it, is that it can 
make foundation in wired-frames by pressing it right over 
the wires. But a press has the disadvantage of leaving in 
the sheets all the irregularities, which they may have, when 
dipped ; while in the roller-mills, these irregularities are 
' ' laminated out. ' ' Hence, pressed-f oundation can never be 
as regular as rolled-foundation. 

683. Plaster moulds and other utensils have been tried 
for foundation-making, but these cheap implements are 
almost entirely discarded. 




Fig. 116. 
THE DUNHAM MILL. 

684. The Root-mills, — the most practical — have been 
improved upon in different ways, by C. Olm, by Mrs. Dun- 
ham of Wisconsin, and by J. Vandervort of Pennsylvania. 
The latter gentleman, one of America's eminent machinists, 
makes most superior mills for any grade of foundation. 



PURE BEESWAX. 



371 




Fig. 117. 
VANDERVORT MILL. 

685. The wax used for thin surplus-foundation is a se- 
lected grade. Wax from cappings (772) and Southern 
wax are the best for this purpose. In every case, whether 
the foundation is to be used for surplus (728), or for 
brood-combs (223), the wax should be ihoroughly cleaned 
by heating it to a high temperature and allowing it to cool 
slowly in flaring vessels, from which the cold wax can be 
easily removed. Wax, that is allowed to retain impurities, 
has less consistency, and will sag more readily. The 
method used by wax-bleachers of purifying with acids 
should not be resorted to, as the bees have a dislike for any 
disagreeable smell or taste. 

686. Nothing but pure wax should be used in any grade of 
foundation. Parafnne, ceresine, etc., have been tried with 
disastrous results. Aside from the fact that these compounds 
melt at a lower degree than beeswax * and break down in 



*' 'Paraffine melts at 110° Fahr. , Beeswax at 162. ' '— (Bloxam's Chemistry. ) 



372 COMB FOUNDATION. 

the hive, the bees readily discover the imposition and show 
a decided preference for pure foundation. 

The most common adulteration of crude bees-wax is 
made with tallow. Luckily, this is easily recognized by 
the soft, dull appearance of the cakes. The smell of tallow 
is also noticeable in freshly broken fragments. 

687. The machines used for thin foundation should riot 
be the same as those used for brood foundation. The lat- 
ter, made on a light wall machine, would be too weak to 
stand the weight of the bees, in a full-sized brood frame, 
and would not contain wax enough for the bees to build 
their comb ; for it is a remarkable fact that the bees ' ' thin 
out" their foundation to a certain extent and make it con- 
siderably deeper out of the same material. When it has 
been made, with a thin base and a heavy wall, the bees draw 
it out more readily into comb. 

On the other hand, foundation for surplus (719) must 
be made as light as the finest machine can make it. to avoid 
what is called the "fish-bone," a central rib found in the 
honey-comb that has been built on too heavy foundation. 
There is no "fish-bone," if the proper grade has been 
used, and even an expert in comb-honey hesitates in decid- 
ing whether the base is natural or artificial. 

At the present day, nearly every section (721) of comb- 
honey that is sold, has been built on such foundation. The 
daintiest and most fastidious ladies can have no objection 
to it, and on visiting a well-managed foundation shop, they 
declare that the tender sheets are ' ' nice enough to eat. ' ' 

689. To prepare the wax sheets, we use soft wood boards 
I of an inch thick, bathed in tepid water. They are wiped 
with a sponge, and dipped in melted wax, two or three 
times. The lower part of the board is then dipped in cold 
water, when it is turned bottom side up, and the other end 
is treated in the same manner. After the board has been 
put in water to cool for a little while, it is taken out ; its 



MOULDING. 373 

edges are trimmed with a sharp knife, and two smooth sheets 
of wax are peeled off. If the sheets are intended for heavy 
foundation, twice as many dips are necessary. The wax 
should be liquid but not hot. If it is too hot, the sheets 
will crack. To secure rapid work, you must have a room 
arranged purposely for the dippers, with a zinc or tin floor 
to catch the drips of water and wax. 

690. The illustration, here given, (see plate) shows one 
of the moulding tables in our foundation factory. The sheet 
wax, after a few days' cooling in a deep and dry cellar, is 
tempered, in the moulding tank with warm water, and run 
through the rollers. The latter are lubricated with starch, 
or soapsuds. When soapsuds are used, it is very import- 
ant that the sheets be pressed so tightly in the rollers, as 
to come out dry. This also makes a better print. The 
foundation, as fast as it comes from the rollers, is laid upon 
a hard wood block — a dozen sheets or more, at a time. A 
wooden pattern is laid over them, and they are trimmed to 
the proper size, by a knife made for the purpose, whose 
blade has been wet with soapsuds. The projecting edges 
are trimmed off r and the damaged sheets are melted over 
for future use. 

For the thin grades of foundation, the narrower the 
sheets are, the thinner the foundation can be made. A 
wide sheet spreads the rollers by springing the shafts to a 
certain extent, and is heavier. 

691. The manufacture of foundation, which at first 
seemed likely to be undertaken by every Apiarist, has 
become an industry of itself, owing to the greater skill and 
speed acquired by those who make it daily. It might be 
compared to cigar making. Any Apiarist can make wax 
into sheets and run it through rollers, and any farmer can 
raise tobacco and roll its leaves into cigars, but, to the 
uninitiated, a neat sheet of foundation is as difficult to 
make as an elegant cigar. 



374 



COMB FOUNDATION. 



Acting upon socialistic principles, in our manufacture of 
comb-foundation, we have interested our workmen, as we did 
the farmers on whose lands we have out- Apiaries (584). 
Pursuing the same principles, our workmen have associated 
together, dividing their earnings and electing their fore- 
man. Such arrangements produce not only harmony, but 
many other results. Our laborers get better wages ; and 
there is less need of close watching ; for the work is always 
done with the view of increasing the business by satisfying 
the customers. 

Well-made foundation will keep for years, in a dry place. 
It should never be handled when cold; and when too much 
softened by heat, should be cooled in a cellar, a few hours 
before it is handled. 

692. The best grade of foundation for brood or extract- 
ing (749) combs is that which measures about five square 
feet to the pound ; that for sections, ten to twelve feet. 
On this latter grade, the comb is not so readily built, for 
the bees have to add their own wax to it. 

693. The founda- 
tion is fastened in sec- 
tions by different ma- 
chines, the most simple 
of which is the Parker- 
Fastener, sold by all 
dealers in bee-imple- 
ments. 

In his ' ' Management 
of Bees" Mr. Doolittle 
describes his method, 
as follows : 




Fig. 118. 
FOUNDATION FASTENED ON 
TRIANGULAR BAR. 

From "Bees and Honey." 



" Turn your sections top side down, hold a hot iron close to 
the box, and after holding the starter immediately above and 
touching the iron, draw the iron out quickly and press the 
starter gently on to the wood, when it is a fixture." 



FASTENING IT IN THE FRAMES. 



375 



To fasten the foundation on a triangular top-bar, it can 
be pressed to each side of it as per engraving (fig. 118) 
taken from the American Bee-Journal. But, on a flat top- 
bar, it is much more readily fastened by the use of the 




Fig. 119. 
HAMBAUGH ROLLER. 



roller (fig. 119) invented by our friend, Mr. Hambaugh, a 
successful Apiarist of Illinois. 

694. In brood-frames, it may be fastened with or with- 
out wires. The wire used is malleable tinned wire, No. 30. 
A shallow frame needs no wires at all, but in brood-combs, 
— to insure safety and prevent warping — it is as well to use 
two or three horizontal wires as in fig. 119. This method 
of horizontal-wiring was first given us by Mr. Vandervort, 
to whom the world is also indebted for the spur for imbed- 
ding the wire in the foundation (fig. 120). The excessive 
wiring resorted to by some is worse than useless. 

695. As comb-foundation is generally bought in long 
strips, it may be well to give directions to cut it into pieces 
of the right size for sections. This may be done with almost 



376 



COMB FOUND ATION. 




Fig. 120. 
VANDERVORT IMBEDDING SPUR 



any sharp knife. Have a pattern of the size of the pieces 
wanted, made of hard wood. Take six or eight sheets at 
one time, arranged in an even pile. Lay your pattern on 
them, holding it down firmly ; dip your knife in strong 
soap-suds, and if the wax is at the proper temperature, you 
will cut the eight pieces at one stroke of the knife. If the 
sheets have a tendency to slip from under the pattern, you 
may nail cleats on three sides of it, to encase the pile as in 
a box. 

696. Are there a right and a wrong way, to suspend 
foundation in the frames? Or, in other words, should two 
of the six sides of the cell be perpendicular or horizontal? 
Huber, and Cheshire after him, call our attention to the 
fact, that the bees always build their combs, with two sides 
of the cells perpendicular. Mr. Cheshire explains, at length, 
the adaptation and advantages of this natural fact, and ite 
bearing on the strength of the comb. From his explana- 
tions, it results that foundation suspended thus 
i. e. with two perpendicular sides, would be properly 
fastened, while if suspended thus : /"^ i. e .with 
two horizontal sides, it would be \ / improperly fas- 
tened. 

Most of the machines that are made turn out foundation- 
sheets, which are to be hung horizontally, when the cells 



;0 



HOW FASTENED. 377 

are in the proper position. The Dunham-machine, how- 
ever, makes sheets which should hang vertically, if the 
proper position is wanted. As the sheets principally used, 
are for frames of the Langstroth pattern (299), from eight 
to ten inches in depth, and sixteen to eighteen inches in 
length, and as the machines are all under fourteen inches in 
width, the Dunham foundation-sheets must be cut in two, 
or else must be fastened wrong in the frames, owing to 
the position of the cells in the rollers. In ninety-nine cases 
out of every hundred, the latter method has been followed, 
and as the Dunham heavy-brood foundation has given uni- 
versal satisfaction, it proves that the position of the cells 
cannot have a great importance, practically, whenever a 
heavy grade is used. It is well, however, to place founda- 
tion in the correct position, whenever practicable, espe- 
cially with the light grades for sections, which are more in 
danger of stretching under ordinary circumstances. 

697. It is astonishing, as well as pleasing, to see how 
quickly a swarm will build its combs, when foundation is 
used. The enthusiasm, with which it is used by bee-keep- 
ers, is only exceeded by that of the bees, "in being hived 
on it." This invention certainly deserves to rank next to 
those of the movable-frames (282) and of the honey- 
extractor. (749.) 



378 PASTURAGE AND OVERSTOCKING. 



CHAPTER XVI 



Pasturage and Overstocking. 



Pasturage. 

698. The quantity of honey yielded by different flowers 
varies considerably ; some give so little, that a bee has to 
visit hundreds to fill her sack, while the corolla of others 
overflows with nectar. 

In the vicinity of the Cape of Good Hope, there is a 
blossom, the Protea mellifera. which probably surpasses 
all others in the abundance of its nectar. Indeed, so 
abundant is it, that it is said, the natives gather it by 
dipping it from the flowers, with spoons. Mr. De Planta, 
in a lengthy and scientific article published in the Revue 
Internationale d' Apiculture, gives an account of his anal- 
ysis of some samples of this honey, which he had received 
through the "Moravian United Brothers." He reports 
it to have the scent and the taste of ripe bananas, and con- 
siders it very sweet and good. 

699. The same plants yield nectar in different quantities 
in different countries. The Caucasian Comfrey, from 
which the bees reap a rich harvest in Europe, is of little 
account here. 

700. Every bee-keeper should carefully acquaint him- 
self with the honey-resources of his own neighborhood. 
We will mention particularly some of the most important 
plants from which bees draw their supplies. Since Dzier- 
zon's discovery of the use which may be made of flour, 
early blossoms producing pollen only, are not so important. 



PRINCIPAL SOURCES. 379 

All the varieties of willow abound in both pollen and 
honey, and their early blossoming gives them a special 

value. 

" First the gray willow's glossy pearls they steal, 
Or rob the hazel of its golden meal, 
While the gay crocus and the violet blue, 
Yield to their flexible trunks ambrosial dew." — Evans. 

The sugar-maple (Acer saccharinus) yields a large supply 
of delicious honey, and its blossoms, hanging in graceful 
fringes, will be alive with bees. 

In some sections, the wild gooseberry is a valuable help 
to the bees, as it blossoms very early, and they work eagerly 
on it. 

Of the fruit trees, the apricot, peach, plum, cherry and 
pear, are great favorites ; but none furnishes so much honey 
as the apple. 

The dandelion, whose blossoms furnish pollen and honey, 
when the yield from the fruit trees is u early over, is worthy 
of rank among honey-producing plants. 




Fig. 121. 

BLOSSOM OF TULIP TREE. 



The tulip tree (Liriodendron) (Fig. 121), is one of the 



380 



PASTURAGE. 



greatest honey-producing trees in the world. As its blossoms 
expand in succession, new swarms will sometimes fill their 
hives from this source alone. The honey, though dark, is of 
a good flavor. This tree often attains a height of over one 
hundred feet, and its rich foliage, with its large blossoms 
of mingled green and yellow, make it a most beautiful 
sight. 




Kg. 122. 

LOCUST BLOSSOMS 

The common locust (Fig. 122), is a very desirable tree 
for the vicinity of an Apiary, yielding much honey when 
it is peculiarly needed by the bees. 

The wild cherry blooms about the same time. 



CLOVER. 



381 



701. Of all the sources from which bees derive their 
supplies, white clover (Fig. 123), is usually the most 




Fig. 123. 
WHITE CLOVER. 

important. It yields large quantities of very pure white 
honey, and wherever it abounds, the bee will find a rich 
harvest. In most parts of this country it seems to be the 
chief reliance of the Apiary. Blossoming at a season of 
the year when the weather is usually both dry and hot, and 
the bees gathering its honey after the sun has dried off the 
dew, it is ready to be sealed over almost at once. 

It is at the blossoming of this important plant that the 
main crop of honey usually begins, and that the bees prop- 
agate in the greatest number. 

The flowers of red clover (fig. 124) also produce a large 
quantity of nectar ; unfortunately its corollas are usually 
too deep for the tongue of our bees. Yet sometimes, in 
Summer, they can reach the nectar, either because its 
corollas are shorter on account of dryness, or because they 
are more copiously filled. 



382 



PASTURAGE AND OVERSTOCKING. 




1 ^ifcv^y-* ,^yu. 



Fig. 124. 
RED CLOVER. 



702. The linden, or bass-wood (Tilia Americana, fig. 
125), yields white honey of a strong flavor, and, as it blos- 
soms when both the swarms and parent- colonies are usually 
populous, the weather settled, and other bee-forage scarce, 
its value to the bee-keeper is great. 

" Here their delicious task, the fervent bees 
In swarming millions tend : around, athwart, 
Through the soft air the busy nations fly, 
Cling to the bud, and with inserted tube, 
Suck its pure essence, its etherial soul." — Thomson. 



This majestic tree, adorned with beautiful clusters of 



PASTURAGE. 



383 




Fig. 125. 
LINDEN OR BASSWOOD. 

fragrant blossoms, is well worth attention as an ornamental 
shade-tree. By adorning our 
villages and country residences 
with a fair allowance of tulip, 
linden, and such other trees as 
are not only beautiful to the eye, 
but attractive to bees, the honey- 
resources of the country might, 
in process of time, be greatly 
increased. In many districts, 
locust and bass-wood planta- 
tions would be valuable for their 
timber alone. 

703. We have also a variety 
of clover imported from Sweden, 
which grows as tall as the red 
clover, bears many blossoms on 
a stalk, in size resembling the 
white, and, while it answers 
admirably for bees, is preferred 
by cattle to almost any other 
kind of grass. It is known 




126 . 

From "Bees& Honey.") 
ALSIKE CLOVER, 



384 PASTURAGE AND OVERSTOCKING. 

by the name of Alsike, or Swedish clover (Fig. 126). 
The objection made to this clover is that its stem is so 
light that it falls to the ground. This is remedied by sowing 
it with timothy. The latter helps it to stand. It is as good 
for honey as white clover. 

704. The raspberry furnishes a most delicious honey. 
In flavor it is superior to that from the white clover. The 
sides of the roads, the borders of the fields, and the past- 
ures of much of the " hill- country " of New England, 
abound with the wild red raspberry, and, in such favored 
locations, numerous colonies of bees may be kept. When 
it is in blossom, bees hold even the white clover in light es- 
teem. Its drooping blossoms protect the honey from moist- 
ure, and they can work upon it when the weather is so wet 
that they can obtain nothing from the upright blossoms of 
the clover. As it furnishes a succession of flowers for some 
weeks, it yields a supply almost as lasting as the white 
clover. The precipitous and rocky lands, where it most 
abounds, might be made almost as valuable as some of the 
vine-clad terraces of the mountain districts of Europe. 

The borage (Borago officinalis), (Fig. 143), blossoms 
continually from June until severe frost, and, like the rasp- 
berry, is frequented by bees even in moist weather. The 
honey from it is of a superior quality. 

The Canada thistle, the viper ougloss yield good honey 
after white clover has begun to fail. But these plants are 
troublesome, for they cannot easily be gotten rid of. 

705. Melilot, or sweet clover (figs. 127 and 136), which 
grows on any barren or rocky soil without cultivation, is 
one of the most valuable honey-plants. It will not thrive, 
however, where cattle can graze on it, as they soon destroy 
it. If cut early to be used as forage, it blooms later than 
white clover and till frost. It is a biennial. 

The different varieties of smart- weeds (Persicaria), golden 
rod, buckwheat, asters, iron-weed, Spanish-needles in low 



PASTURAGE. 



385 




Fig. 127. (From L'Apicoltore.) 
YELLOW OR OFFICINAL MELILOT. 



.ands and marshy places, give a very abundant honey-crop 
in the latter part of the Summer. They form the bulk of 
what is called the "Fall crop " in this latitude. 

In California the sage, in Texas the horse-mint, in Flor- 
ida the mangrove, form the main honey-harvests of those 
countries. 

706. We here present a list of the flowers known as 

being visited by the bees for their nectar or for their pollen. 

We have grouped them in Families, and we give engravings 

pf their most prominent types, in order to help the Apiarist 

25 



386 



PASTURAGE AND OVERSTOCKING. 



in his investigations. But our list is far from being corn 
plete, and every clay brings some new discoveries. 

Compositoe: — Dandelion, Thistle, Chamomile, (Fig. 128), 
Sunflower, Ox-eye Daisy, Goldenrod (Fig. 129), Coreopsis, 




HJt/vcsrvjr 



Fig. 128. 
CHAMOMILE. 



Fig. 129. 
GOLDEN ROD OR SOLIDAGO. 



Lettuce, Chicory, Boneset, Iron-weed, Indian Plantain, Fire- 
weed, Aster (Fig. 130-131), Burr Marigold, Spanish Needles, 
Coneflower, Isatis tinctoria, Star Thistle, Thorough wort, 
Butter weed, Sneeze- wort, Blue Bottle, Ragweed, several 
varieties of Echinops, one of which, the Spherocephalus, 
was introduced here by Mr. Chapman. The Echinops ritro 
(smaller in size) (Fig. 132), is cultivated in Europe on ac- 



PASTURAGE. 



387 





Fig. 130. 
ASTER ROSEUS. 



Fig. 131. 
ASTER TRADESCANT. 



count of its beautiful blue heads. This family includes also 
the Helenium tenuifolium (Fig. 133), whose honey is poison- 
ous.— (Dr. J. P. H. Brown.) 





Fig 132. 
ECHINOPS KITRO. 



Fig. 133. 
HELEMDM TENUIFOLIUM. 



Leguminous: — Judas tree (Fig. 134), which blooms 
v^ery early, Locust tree, Honey-locust (Fig. 135), Wistaria, 



388 



PASTURAGE AND OVERSTOCKING. 




Fig. 134. (From L'Apicoltore.) 

JUDAS TREE. 



white, red and alsike Clover, Melilot (Fig. 136), Lucerne 
or Alfalfa, Peas, Beans, Vetches, Lentils, False-Indigo, 
Partridge pea, Wild senna, Milk vetch, Yellow-Wood, 
Mesquit-tree of Texas, Cleome-integrifolia, and pun gens 
(Fig. 137). 

Labiate: — (from Labium, a lip.) Sage (Fig. 139), 
Mint (Fig. 140), Ground Ivy (Fig. 138), Horehound, 
Catnip, Motherwort, Horse-Mint, Basil, Hissop, Bergamot, 
Marjoram, Thyme, Melissa, Dead Nettle, Brunella, Penny- 
Royal. 

Rosaceous: — Wild Rose, Cherry (Fig. 142), Plum, 
Peach, Apricot. Apple, Pear, Quince, Hawthorne, Black- 
berry, Raspberry, Strawberry, Juneberry, Cinquefod, 



PASTURAGE. 



389 




Fig. 135. 
HONEY-LOCUST LEAVES & THORNS 



Fig. 136. 
MELILOTUS ALBA. 





Fig. 137. 
CLEOME PUNGENS. 



Fig. 138. 
GROUND IVY. 



390 



PASTURAGE AND OVERSTOCKING. 



Bowmansroot, Queen of the Prairie, Meadow Sweet, Pyra- 
cantha. 




Fir. HI. 
KNOT-WEED. 





Fig. 142. 
CHERRY BLOSSOMS. 



^Zt 



Polygonous: — (Knot- Weed) Buckwheat, Lady Thumb, 
Rhubarb, Sorrel, and a variety of Knot- Weeds or Per- 
sicarias (Fig. 141). 



PASTURAGE. 



391 




Fig. 143. (FromL'Apicoltore.) 
BORAGE. 




/<r ^j&f^^sra 



Fig. 144. 
VERONICA OFFICINALIS. 



392 



PASTURAGE AND OVERSTOCKING. 



Borage Family: — Borage (Fig. 143), Viper-bugloss. 
Comfrey, Phacelia, Virginia Lungwort, Hound tongue. 
Gromwell, False Grornwell. 

Scrophularia : — Scrophularia nodosa (Simpson's honey- 





Fig 145. 
ASCLEPIAS TUBEROSA. PLEURISY ROOT. 



Fig. 146. 
ASCLEPIAS SYRIA CA. 



Jessamine of the 
J. P. H. Brown.) 



plant), Veronicas (Fig. 144), Yellow 
South, whose honey is poisonous. (Dr. 
Asclepiadaceaz : — The common Milk- 
weed (Fig. 146), or Silkweed, Asclepias 
Syriaca, is much frequented by bees, 
but these visits are often fatal to them. 
All the grains of pollen of the Silkweed. 
in each anther, are collected in a com- 
pact mass, inclosed in a sack ; these 
sacks are united in pairs (a. Fig. 147) 
by a kind of thread, terminated by a 

J ' J POLLEN OF MILKWEED. 

small, viscous gland. These threads fl) sacs G f poUen in 
stick to the feet (b. Fig. 147) and often ESa&J&T^.*- 
to the labial palpi (46) of the bees, who (From" a b c of Bee 
cannot easily get rid of them, and per- 
ish. In some parts of Ohio and Western Illinois, a variet}' 




PASTURAGE. 



393 



of the common kind, the Alsclepias Sullivantii, does not 
present to bees these difficulties to the same degree. We 
have seen bees gathering honey freely on four or five differ- 
ent varieties which grow in our neighborhood, and especially 
on the Tuberosa or Pleurisy root (Fig. 145), fitly recom- 
mended by James Heddon. This kind is noticeable by its 
orange flowers. 





- Fig. 149. 
BLACK MUSTARD. 



Cruciferous: — Rape (Fig. 148), Mustard (Fig. 149), 
Cabbage, Radish, Candy Tuft, Stock, Wall-Flower, Moon- 
wort, Sweet Alyssum, Cress. 

Ericaceoe: — This family, on the Old Continent, includes 
the numerous varieties of Heath, on which bees reap a 
large harvest of inferior honey, so thick that it is impos- 
sible to extract it. Blueberry, Sour Wood, Laurel, Clethra 
alnifolia, Cowberry (Fig. 150), Huckleberry, Whortle- 
berry, G-aultheria Procumbens, or Creeping wintergreen, — 
which is indicated, by some English bee-keepers, as pre- 



394 



PASTURAGE AND OVERSTOCKING. 




Fig. J 52. 
(ENOTHERA GRANDIFLORA. 



Fig. 153. 
EPILOBIUM SPICATUM. 



PASTURAGE. 



395 




Fij-. 156. 
LILY OF THE VALLEY. 



Fig. 157. 
SOLOMON'S SEAL. 



396 



PASTURAGE AND OVERSTOCKING. 



venting bees from stinging the hands when they are rubbed 
with its leaves, — belong to this family. 

Valerianaceoe : — Valerian (Fig. 151), Corn salad or Lamb 
lettuce, belong to this family. 

Onagraceoe: — (Evening 
Primrose family) Gaura, 
Fuschia, CEnothera (Fig. 
152) Epilobium (Willow 
Herb, Fig. 153). 

Liliaceoe : — Lilies (Fig. 
154), Asparagus, Wild 
Hyacinth (Fig. 155), Star 
of Bethlehem, Lily of the 
Valley (Fig. 156), Solo- 
mon's Seal (Fig. 157), 
Dog's-tooth Violet, three- 
headed Night-shade, Gar- 
lic, Onion, Crocus. 

Malvaceae : — Common 
Mallows, and others, Hol- 
lyhock, Cotton(Fig. 158), 
Abutilon. 

Caprifoliacece: — Honeysuckle, Snow and Coral berries, 
Arrow-wood. 




Fig. 15«. 
COTTON. 




Fig. 159.— MEIXXN. 



PASTURAGE. 



397 



Oucurbitacece: — Cucumber, Melon (Fig. 159), Squash, 
Gourd. 





Umbelliferce: — Parsley, Angelica, Lovage, Fennel (Fi^ 
160), Parsnip, Coriander, Cow-parsnip. 





398 



PASTURAGE AND OVERSTOCKING 



CaryopJiyllaceoe ; — Pink (Fig. 161), Licknis, Chickweed, 
Saponaria. 

We can name also: Rib-Grass, or Plantain (Fig. 162), 
Goosefoot, Blue-eyed grass, Corn-flag, Buckthorn, Barberry 
(Fig. 163), Sumac, Grape-vine, Polanj^sia, Button weed, 
Mignonette, or Reseda (Fig. 164), Teasel, Skunk cabbage, 




Fig. 164. 
MIGNONETTE. 



Fig. 165. 
WILLOW. 

Male Blossom. 



Fig. 166 

WILLOW. 

Female Blossom. 



Waterleaf, Hemp, Touch-me-not, Amaranth, Crowfoot, St. 
John's wort, and among the trees: Willow (Figs. 165-166), 
Poplar, which have their sexual organs on different trees ; 
Oak (Fig. 167), Walnut, Hickory, Beech, Birch, Alder, 
Elm, Hazel-nut (Fig. 168), Maple whose organs of repro- 
duction are separated, although on the same tree. 

Horse chestnut, Persimmon, Gum-tree, Dogwood, Button- 
bush, Cypress, Liquidambar, Linden. 



PASTURAGE. 



399 



We should mention also, Aylanthus glandulosus (Varnish 
tree of Japan), a large, ornamental tree, which gives an 
abundance of honey so bad in taste, as to compel the bee- 
keepers who have some in their neighborhood to extract 
it as soon as it is gathered, that it may not injure the 
quality of their crop. 





OAK. 



Fig. 167. 
FEMALE BLOSSOM. 



HAZEL NUT. 



Fig. 168. 
MALE BLOSSOM t 



Bees also visit some of the plants of thb grass family, 
such as corn aDd sorghum. A plant of this family, the 
Setaria, or bristly fox-tail grass, is known in France under 
the name of accroche-abeilles, (bee-catcher). Its curved 
hairs grasp the bees' legs, and the poor insects, unable to 
free themselves, are soon exhausted, and die. 



400 PASTURAGE AND OVERSTOCKING. 



Overstocking, 

OUR COUNTRY NOT IN DANGER OF BEING OVERSTOCKED 
WITH BEES. 

707. If the opinions, entertained by some, as to the 
danger of overstocking were correct, bee-keeping in this 
country, would always have been an insignificant pursuit. 

It is difficult to repress a smile when the owner of a few 
hives, in a district where hundreds might be made to pros- 
per, gravely imputes his ill-success to the fact, that too 
many bees are kept in his vicinity. If, in the Spring, a 
colony of bees is prosperous and healthy, it will gather 
abundant stores, in a favorable season, even if many equally 
strong are in its immediate vicinity ; while, if it is feeble, it 
will be of little or no value, even if it is in " a land flowing 
with milk and honey," and there is not another colony 
within a dozen miles of it. 

As the great Napoleon gained many of his victories by 
having an overwhelming force at the right place, in the 
right time, so the bee-keeper must have strong colonies, 
when numbers can be turned to the best account. If 
they become strong only when they can do nothing but 
consume what little honey has been previously gathered, he 
is like a farmer who suffers his crops to rot on the ground, 
and then hires a set of idlers to eat him out of house and 
home. 

708. Although bees can fly, in search of food, over three 
miles, still, if it is not within a circle of about two miles in 
every direction from the Apiary, they will be able to store hut 
little surplus honey.* If pasturage abounds within a quar- 

*" Judging from the sweep that bees take from the side of a railroad train in 
motion, we should estimate their pace at about thirty miles an hour. This 
would give them four minutes to reach the extremity of their common range. " 
^-London Quarterly Review. 



OVERSTOCKING. 401 

ter of a mile from their hives, so much the better ; there is 
no great advantage, however, in having it close to them, 
unless there is a great supply, as bees, when they leave the 
hive, seldom alight upon the neighboring flowers. The 
instinct to fly some distance seems to have been given them 
to prevent them from wasting their time in prying into 
flowers already despoiled of their sweets by previous gath- 
erers. 

" Mr. Kaden, of Mayence, thinks that the range of the bee's 
flight does not usually extend more than three miles in all direc- 
tions. Several years ago, a vessel, laden with sugar, anchored 
off Mayence, and was soon visited by the bees of the neighbor- 
hood, which continued to pass to and from the vessel from dawn 
to dark. One morning, when the bees were in full flight, the 
vessel sailed up the river. For a short time, the bees continued 
to fly as numerously as before ; but gradually the number dimin- 
ished, and, in the course of half an hour, all had ceased to follow 
the vessel, which had, meanwhile, sailed more than four miles." 
— Bienenzeitung , 1854, p. 83. 

Our own experience corroborates the statements of Kaden. 
We have known strong colonies of bees to starve upon the 
hills in a year of drouth, while the Mississippi bottoms, 
less than four miles distant, which had been overflowed dur- 
ing the Spring, were yielding a large crop. It is evident 
that districts, where the honey blossoms are scarce, can be 
much more readily overstocked than those rich bottom 
lands which are covered wit 1 blossoms, the greater part of 
the Summer. A great amount of land in cultivation, is not 
always a hindrance to honey production, for cultivated 
lands often grow weeds, which yield an abundance of honey. 
Heartsease and Spanish needle grow plentifully in corn- 
fields and wheat stubble in wet seasons. Pasture lands 
abound with white clover. 

709. It is impossible to give the exact number of colo- 
nies that a country can support profitably. In poor loca- 
tions, a few hives will probably harvest all the honey to b§ 



402 PASTURAGE AND O , ERSTOCKING. 

found, while some districts can support perhaps a hundred 
or more to the square mile. The bee-keeper must be his 
own judge, as to the honey capacity of his district. 

" When a large flock of sheep, says Oettl, is grazing on a 
limited area, there may soon be a deficiency of pasturage. But 
this cannot be asserted of bees, as a good honey-district cannot 
readily be overstocked with them. To-day, when the air is 
moist and warm, the plants may yield a superabundance of 
nectar ; while to-morrow, being cold and wet, there may be a 
total want of it. When there is sufficient heat and moisture, the 
saccharine juices of plants will readily fill the nectaries, and will 
be quickly replenished when carried off by the bees. Every cold 
night checks the flow of honey, and every clear, warm day re- 
opens the fountains. The flowers expanded to-day must be visited 
while open; for, if left to wither, their stores are lost. The same 
remarks will apply substantially in the case of honey-dews. 
Hence, bees cannot, as many suppose, collect to-morrow what is 
left ungathered to-day, as sheep may graze hereafter on the pas- 
turage they do not need now. Strong colonies and large Apiaries 
are in a position to collect ample stores when forage suddenly 
abounds, while, by patient, persevering industry, they may still 
gather a sufficiency, and even a surplus, when the supply is 
small, but more regular and protracted." 

Although we believe that a district can be overstocked, 
so as to make bee-culture unprofitable, 3-et the above extract 
gives a correct view of the honey harvest, which depends 
much on the weather, and must be gathered when produced. 

The same able Apiarist, whose golden rule in bee-keeping 
is, to keep none but strong colonies, sa} r s that in the lapse 
of twenty j^ears since he established his Apiary, there 
has not occurred a season in which the bees did not 
procure adequate supplies for themselves, and a surplus 
besides. Sometimes, indeed, he came near despairing, when 
April, May, and June were continually cold, wet, and un- 
productive ; but in July, his strong colonies speedily filled 
their garners, and stored up some treasure for him ; while, 
in such seasons, small colonies could not even gather enough 
.to keep them from starvation. 



OVERSTOCKING. 403 

710. According to Oettl (p. 389), Bohemia contained 
160,000 colonies in 1853, from a careful estimate, and he 
thought the country could readily support four times that 
number. This province contains 19,822 square English 
miles. 

We say square English miles, and we insist on the word 
English, for we have read of reports from Germany, show- 
ing incredible figures as to the number of bees, and the 
amount of beeswax and honey gathered on areas of a few 
square miles ; and yet, some of these reports may have 
been true, for there are different sized miles, in Germany. 
The German geographical mile is equal to 4:.j-$$-q English 
miles ; the German short mile, to o.-^ 7 q ; and the German 
long mile to 5. t 7 q^, &c. ; the shortest German square mile 
being as about 15 of the English, and the long being about 
equal to 33 of our square miles. This we glean from 
"Chambers Encyclopedia." 

According to an official report, there were in Denmark, 
in 1838, eighty-six thousand and thirty-six colonies of bees. 
The annual product of honey appears to have been about 
1,841,800 lbs. In 1855, the export of wax from that coun- 
try was 118,379 lbs. 

In 1856, according to official returns there were 58,964 
colonies of bees in the kingdom of Wurtemberg. 

In 1857, the yield of honey and wax in the empire of 
Austria was estimated to be worth over seven millions of 
dollars. 

Doubtless, in these districts, where honey is so largety 
produced, great attention is paid to the cultivation of crops 
which, while in themselves profitable, afford abundant pas- 
turage for bees. 

711. California, which seems to be the Eldorado of bee- 
culture, can probably support the greatest number of bees 
to the square mile, and yet in some seasons the bees starve 
there in great numbers owing to the drouth. 



404 PASTURAGE AND OVERSTOCKING. 

We have no official statistics of the honey crops of the 
United States, but the following extract from the American 
Bee-Journal (1886), will give an idea of the immensity of 
our hone}' resources, considering the comparatively small 
areas of this country now occupied by Apiarists. 

" The California Grocer says that the crop of 1885 was about 
1,250,000 pounds. The foreign export from San Francisco dur- 
ing the year was approximately 8,800 cases. The shipments 
East by rail were 360,000 pounds from San Francisco, and 910,000 
pounds from Los Angeles, including both comb and extracted. 
We notice that another California paper estimates the crop of 
1885 at 2,000,000 pounds, and the crop of the United States for 
1885 was put down at 26,000,000 pounds. We do not think these 
figures are quite large enough, though it was an exceedingly 
poor crop." 

But former 3-ears have given still better results. Through 
the courtesy of Mr. N. W. McLain, of the U. S. Apicultural 
Station, we have received the following statistics from 
" The Resources of California, 1881 " : 

The honey shipped from Ventura County, California, 
during 1880 amounted to 1,050,000 lbs. The Pacific Coast 
Steamship Company of San Diego shipped 1,191,800 pounds 
of honey from that county in the same } r ear. 

The crop of the five lower counties in California that 
year, was estimated by several parties at over three million 
pounds. 

According to a report of S. D. Stone, Clerk of the Mer- 
chants' Exchange of San Francisco, the actual amount of 
hone}' shipped to that city from different parts r f California 
in the sixteen months ending May 1, 1881, was 4,340,400 
pounds, equal to two hundred and seventeen car-loads. 

One hundred tons of honey, in one lot, were shipped during 
the same 3 r ear, from Los Angeles to Europe on the French 
bark Papillon. This had all been purchased from Los 
Angeles Apiarists. 

712. In the excellent season of 1883, the honey crop of 



PASTURAGE. 405 

Hancock County, Illinois, was estimated at about 200,000 
pounds, which made an average of less than half a pound 
per acre. 36,000 pounds of this was our own crop, and 
the county did not contain one-tenth of the bees that could 
have been kept profitably on it. Yet, at this low rate, the 
crop of Illinois alone, with the same percentage of bees, 
would have been 15,000,000 pounds. We cannot form an 
adequate idea of the enormous amount of honey, which is 
wasted from the lack of bees to harvest it. 

713. In our own experience in the Mississippi Valley, 
we have found eighty to one hundred colonies to be the 
number from which the most honey could be expected in 
one Apiary. Dr. C. C. Miller in his interesting work "A 
Year Among the Bees," says also that one hundred colonies 
is the best number in one location. Mr. Hecldon strongly 
urges bee-keepers not to locate within any area already 
occupied by an Apiary of one hundred colonies or more. 
The extensive experience of both these Apiarists confirms 
ours, but we must remember that locations differ greatly. 

714. In all arrangements, aim to save every step for 
the bees that you possibly can. With the alighting-board 
properly arranged, the grass kept down, or better still, 
coal- ashes or sand (568) spread in front of the apron- 
board (343), bees will be able to store more honey, even 
if they have to go a considerable distance for it, than they 
otherwise could from pasturage nearer at hand. Many bee- 
keepers utterly neglect all suitable precautions to facilitate 
the labors of their bees, as though they imagined them to 
be miniature locomotives, always fired up, and capable of 
an indefinite amount of exertion. A bee cannot put forth 
more than a certain amount of physical effort, and a large 
portion of this ought not to be spent in contending against 
difficulties from which it might easily be guarded. They 
may often be seen panting after their return from labor, 
and so exhausted as to need rest before they enter the hive. 



406 PASTURAGE AND OVERSTOCKING. 

715. With proper management, at least fifty pounds of 
surplus honey may be obtained from each colony that is 
wintered in good condition. This is not a " guess " esti- 
mate, it is the average of our crops during a period of over 
twenty years in different localities. 

Such an average may appear small to experienced bee- 
keepers, but we think it large enough when we consider 
that we have very few linden trees in our neighborhood. 

A careful man, who, with Langstroth hives, will begin 
bee-keeping on a prudent scale, enlarging his operations as 
his skill and experience increase, will succeed in any region. 
But, in favorable localities, a much larger profit may be 
realized. 

Bee-keepers cannot be too cautious in entering largely 
upon new systems of management, until they have ascer- 
tained, not only that they are good, but that they can make 
a good use of them. There is, however, a golden mean 
between the stupid conservatism that tries nothing new, and 
that rash experimenting, on an extravagant scale, which is 
so characteristic of many people. 



HONEY PRODUCTION. 407 

CHAPTER XVII. 

Honey Production. 

716. History does not mention the first discovery of 
honey, by human beings. Whether it became known to 
primitive man by accident, from the splitting of a bee-tree 
by lightning, or b}^ his observation of the fondness of some 
animals for it, — certain it is that when he first tasted the 
thick and transparent liquid, the fear of stings was over- 
come, and the bee-hunter was born. Since that time, the 
manner of securing honey has undergone a great many 
changes, improving and retrograding, as we can judge from 
writings now extant. 

Killing bees (276) for their honey was, unquestionably, 
an invention of the dark ages, when the human family had 
lost — in Apiarian pursuits, as well as in other things — the 
skill of former ages. In the times of Aristotle, Varro, 
Columella, and Pliny, such a barbarous practice did not 
exist. The old cultivators took only what their bees could 
spare, killing no colonies, except such as were feeble or 
diseased. 

The Modern methods have again done away with these 
customs among enlightened men, and the time has come 
when the following epitaph, taken from a German work, 
might properly be placed over every pit of brimstoned 
bees: 

HERE BESTS, 

CUT OFF FROM USEFUL LABOR, 

A COLONY OF 

INDUSTRIOUS BEES 

BASELT MURDERED 

BY ITS 

UNGRATEFUL AND IGNORANT 

OWNER. 



408 HONEY PRODUCTION. 

To the epitaph should be appended Thomson's verses: 

" Ah, see, where robbed and murdered in that pit, 
Lies the still heaving hive! at evening snatched, 
Beneath the cloud of guilt-concealing night, 
And fixed o'er sulphur! while, not dreaming ill, 
The happy people, in their waxen cells, 
Sat tending public cares. 
Sudden, the dark, oppressive steam ascends. 
And, used to milder scents, the tender race, 
By thousands, tumble from their honied dome 
Into a gulf of blue sulphureous flame ! " 

717. The present methods are as far ahead of the old 
ways, as the steel rail is ahead of the miry road ; as the 
palace car is ahead of the stage coach. 

It is to the production of surplus honey that all the efforts 
of the bee-keeper tend, and the problem of Apiculture is, 
how to raise the most honey from what colonies we have, 
with the greatest profit. 

718. In raising honey, whether comb or extracted, the 
Apiarist should remember the following : 

1st. His colonies should be strongest in bees at the time 
of the expected honey harvest (565). 

2d. Each honey harvest usually lasts but a few weeks. 

If a colony is weak in Spring, the harvest may come and 
pass away, and the bees be able to obtain very little from it. 
During this time of meagre accumulations, the orchards 
and pastures may present 

"One boundless blush, one white empurpled shower 
Of mingled blossoms;" 

and tens of thousands of bees from stronger colonies may 
be engaged all day in sipping the fragrant sweets, so that 
every gale which "fans its odoriferous wings" about their 
dwellings, dispenses 

"Native perfumes, and whispers whence they stole 
Those balmy spoils." * 

*The scent of the hives, during the height of the gathering season, usually 
indicates from what sources the bees have gathered their supplies. 



COMB HONEY. 409 

By the time the feeble colony becomes strong — if at all 
— the honey harvest is over, and, instead of gathering 
enough for its own use, it may starve, unless fed. Bee- 
keeping, with colonies which are feeble, except in extraor- 
dinary seasons and locations, is emphatically nothing but 
" vexation of spirit." 

3rd. Colonies that swarm (406) cannot be expected to 
furnish much surplus, in average localities and seasons. 
(See Artificial Increase 469.) 

4th. A hive containing or raising many drones (189) 
cannot save as much surplus as one that has but few, owing 
to the cost of production of these drones. 

We have insisted on this point already, but it is of such 
importance, that we cannot refrain from recalling it. The 
hives should be overhauled every Spring, and the drone 
comb, cut out and replaced by neat pieces of worker comb, 
or of comb foundation (674). Every square foot of drone 
comb, replaced with worker comb, represents an annual 
saving, in our estimation, of at least one dollar to the 
colony. 

Comb Honey. 



719. Although the production of comb honey is less 
advantageous than that of extracted honey (746), yet a 
newly made and well sealed honey comb is unquestionably 
most attractive, and, when nicely put up, will find a place 
of honor, even on the tables of the wealthy. White comb 
honey will always be a fancy article, and will sell at paying 
prices. 

Dark honey in the comb never finds ready sale. Hence, 
the bee-keepers, in districts where white honey is harvested, 
are mostly producers of comb honey ; while those in the 
districts producing dark honey, in the South mainly, rely 
more on extracted honey. 



410 HONEY PRODUCTION. 

720. We have not the space to describe the different 
evolutions, through which the production of comb honey 
has passed since box-hive times ; production in large frames, 
in glass boxes, in tumblers, etc. 

Honey in large frames does not sell well, and cannot be 
safely transported. Were it not for this, its production in 
this way would be advisable. The experienced bee-keeper 
well knows that bees will make more honey in a large box, 
than in several small ones whose united capacity is the 
same. In small boxes, they cannot so well maintain their 
animal heat in cool weather and cannot ventilate so readily 
in hot weather.* 

The bees have another important and natural objection 
to the small receptacles, mentioned by a noted Apiarist, as 
will be seen farther (741). Practically, there is more 
labor for the bees in small receptacles, as the joints and 
corners of the combs require more time and more wax. 

721. But to produce salable comb honey, we have no 
choice. We must produce it in as small a receptacle as 
possible. The Adair section boxes, which we used as early 
as 1868, marked the first progressive step, so far as we 
know. 

These sections forming a case by the overlapping of their 
top and bottom bars, and furnished with glass at each end, 
were much admired, and we sold several tons of honey, in 
this shape, in St. Louis, at the now fabulous prices of from 
25 to 28 cents per pound. 

722. But the one and two pound sections, as now made, 
have been universally adopted of late years. 

The one pound sections sell best, but, at the difference oi 
only one cent per pound, we would prefer to use the two 
pound sections. 

*In the exceedingly hot season of 1878, the colonies that were px-ovided with 
glass boxes yielded on an average, less than one-fourth of the average yielded 
by others. 



COMB HONEY. 



411 



These sections are made of two kinds, dovetailed in four 
pieces, or in one piece and bent. The first can be made 



£ 



Fig. 



169 (From " Bees and Honey.") 
ONE PIECE SECTION. 



of any kind of white wood, while the latter are made of bass 
wood only. When the one piece sections are made by the 
splitting process, they are less apt to break in bending, but 
sawed sections can be safely put up by wetting the V 
notches, before bending them. 

723. Sections are usually made I inch thick and 1J to 2 
inches wide. The standard section for Langstroth hives is 
4i x 4? inches, with openings at the bottom and top. 




Fig. 170. (From -'Gleaning in Bee Culture.") 
miller's crate or super. 

724. They are given to the bees in the upper story, like 
the extracting cases (fig. 178). Storage room, on the sides of 
the brood chamber, has been periodically advised by inven- 
tors of new hives, but bees never fill and seal sections placed 
at the side as fast as if put above the brood chamber.* 



* There are few noted bee-keepers who are successful with a combination 
of top and side storage. We will cite one of the leaders of American Apicul- 
ture, (KM. Doolittle. 



412 



HONEY PRODUCTION. 



Sections are either crated, in cases (fig. 170), or hung in 
broad frames (fig. 171), of full depth, or half depth. Both 




Fig 171 (Fro.n "Bees an l Honey. ") 
FULL DEPTH SECTION FRAME. 

ways have their friends, and both are good, as long the main 
principles are adhered to. 

725. These principles are based on the difficulties, that 
have to be overcome in comb-hone y production, as follows : 

1st. Inducing the bees to work in small receptacles ; 

2d. Forcing them to build the combs straight and even, 
without bulge, so that the sections can be interchanged 
without being bruised against one another, when taken off 
and crated for market ; 

3d. Keeping the queen in the brood apartment, and pre- 
venting her from breeding in the sections ; 

4th. Preventing swarming as much as possible ; 

5th. Arranging the sections so as to have as little propolis 
put on them as possible (237) ; 

6th. Getting the greatest number of sections thoroughly 
sealed, as unsealed honey is unsalable. 

726. 1st. Inducing bees to work in small receptacles. 
Rather than work in small, empty receptacles, the bees 

sometimes crowd their honey in the brood chamber, till 
the queen can find no room to lay in, and swarming, or a 
smaller crop of honey, is the consequence. To remedy 
this evil, some of our leading bee-keepers have resorted to 
an old, discarded, French practice, "reversing." Reversing 
consists in turning the brood chamber upside down and 



COMB HONEY. 



413 



placing hives containing empty combs, whose bees died the 
preceding Winter, or empty supers, over it. The honey 
contained in the brood chamber, which is always placed 
above and behind the brood, safe from pilfering intruders, is 
now at the bottom, near the entrance. 
The cells are wrong side up (fig. 
172), and the most watery honey is 
in danger of leaking out. Hence an 
uproar in the hive, and the immediate 
result is, that the bees promptly oc- 
cupy the upper story, and store in 
it all this ill-situated honey. The 
result is so radical, that "reversing 
bee-keepers" admit that their bees 
have to be fed in the Fall, as too little 
honey is left in the brood chamber for 
the hives to winter on.* In the box- 
hive times, the following was already 
the almost unanimous report of bee- 
keepers on the results of "revers- 
ing." The recruiting and feeding 
for Winter of reversed colonies being 
considered too costly and risky, 

the Apiaries were supplied every year with new colonies 
bought from bee-keepers whose business was to raise 
swarms to sell. 

" If you want the greatest quantity of honey, reverse your col- 
onies; but if reversing was practiced everywhere, we would 
diminish the number of our colonies, and would finally even 




Fig. 172. 
SLOPE OF THE CELLS 
WHEN INVERTED. 



* In reference to this, Mr. Shuck says : ' ' This is not necessarily true. Stop 
inverting, and the frames fill just the same as they do in any non-invertible 
hive, of course. I attach importance to the system in preparation for the har- 
vest, and getting the workers started right. After that, the hive may be used 
as a non-inverter. If you practice inversion weekly, the whole gather is 
likely to be in the supers, and you will be obliged to feed for Winter. If you 
cease inverting about the middle of basswood, you will have surplus, and the 
bees will have Winter stores, provided the flowers yield honey. " 



414 



HONEY PRODUCTION. 



destroy the race of bees, for as far as bee reproduction is concerned 
the ' reversing Apiarist ' reaches the same result as the ' brhnstoning 
Apiarist?" — French Apiarian Congress, Paris, 1861. L'Apiculleur, 
Volume 6, page 175. 




In the present state of progress in bee culture, " revers- 
ing " is less damaging, but its disadvantages to the bees 
cannot overbalance its advantages, unless it is practiced 
very cautiously and sparingly. 



COMB HONEY. 



415 



727. Yet this practice is sufficiently enticing — as it 
forces the bees to occupy the supers so quickly — to have 
caused the invention of a number of reversible hives or 




Fig 174. (From Cheshire.) 
heddon's reversible hive, (patented.) 

st, stand; bb, body; hb, honey hoard; sr, section racks; c, cover; hh, hand 
holds; lb, entrance blocks; e, entrance; I, cleat to give bee space; s, screws 
to hold frames. 



frames. If our readers desire to try "reversible hives," 
they will have but to choose among the many. The most 
popular reversible hives of the present day are the Shuck 



416 HONEY PRODUCTION. 

and the Heddon, both patented. The former has frames of 
the same size as the regular Langstroth pattern, and is 
quite popular in Iowa. 

728. Reversing during the harvest does not cause the 
bees to gather any more honey ; nay, they harvest even a 
little less, owing to the time occupied in transporting the 
honey, but it is all placed in the surplus apartment at the 
mercy of their owner. 

A much safer method to induce the bees to work in the 
supers, is to place in them, nearest the brood, a few un- 
finished sections from the previous season.* The supers 
should be located as near the brood apartment as possible, 
with as much direct communication as can be conveniently 
given. 

729. But, with the greatest skill, it is impossible to 
attract the bees into the supers, as long as there are empty 
combs in the brood-chamber. 

If the queen is unable to occupy all the combs with 
brood, the empty ones should be removed at the beginning 
of the honey harvest, and either given to swarms or divided 
colonies, or placed outside of the division board (349). 
This is called "contraction." We would warn our readers 
against excessive contraction, for, after the honey season 
is over, a hive which has been contracted to, say, two- 
thirds, of its capacity, has become dwarfed in honey, 
brood, and bees, and will run some risks through the Win- 
ter. Besides, that part of the super, which is above 
the empty space, is but reluctantly occupied by bees. 

"If the reader has ever constructed a hive, whose surplus 
department was wider than the brood chamber, jutting out over 
the same, he has noticed the partial neglect paid by the bees, to 
the surplus boxes which rested over wood instead of combs. 

* This is what Or C. C. Miller calls a "bait." These unfinished sections 
have been emptied of their honey by the extractor, and cleaned by the beea 
the previous Fall. 



COMB HONEY. 417 

" Kow this same difference made by the bees, between wood and 
comb, they will also make between combs of honey and combs 
of brood, and with our 8-frarae Langstroth hive, we notice far 
less neglect of the side surplus combs than we noticed when 
using the 10-frame hives. This is one objection to the method 
of contracting by replacing the side combs of brood chambers 
with fillers or dummies." — J. Heddon '' Success in Bee-Culture." 

730. A method which avoids contraction, and makes the 
best honey-producing colonies still better, consists in taking 
brood combs from colonies that are not likely to yield 
any surplus, and exchanging them, for empty combs from 
the best colonies, just before the honey harvest. This 
method requires too many manipulations to be very advan- 
tageous, and prevents the poorest colonies from becoming 
stronger. 

731. 2d. Securing- straight, even combs, in sections. 
With thin comb foundation, in strips filling $ to f of the 
section, the combs are always straight, but their surface, 
when sealed, is not always even. Some cells are built longer 
than others, and, in packing the honey, these bulged combs 
might come in contact with one another and get bruised. 
To prevent this occurrence, many Apiarists use "separa- 
tors," made of tin, wood, or coarse wire cloth, placed be- 
tween the rows of sections, as in fig. 171. This invention, 
claimed by Mr. Betsinger, of New York, was first tried in 
the brood chamber, by Mr. Langstroth in 1858. It was 
suggested by Mr. Colvin. (See former edition, page 374.) 

Let the reader bear in mind that these separators although 
useful, are not indispensable. They are to a certain ex- 
tent an annoyance to the bees. Some Apiarists of ability, 
among whom we will cite Mr. Geo. H. Beard, of Missouri, 
manage to secure very nice honey in sections without them ; 
but if we were to produce large quantities of comb honey, 
we should use them, and would give the preference to those 
made of tin. 
27 



418 HONEY PRODUCTION. 

732. 3d. Kekpino the queen in the brood apart- 
ment. If the supers have been put on just previous to the 
opening of the honoy crop, with sufficient bait to attract the 
bees in them, there will be but little danger of the queen's 
moving up into them, unless her breeding room is too much 
cramped by honey, or by the exiguity of the brood nest. 

The condition of the honey crop has something to do 
with her propensity to move out of the brood apartment. 
When the honey crop is heavy, and of short duration, there 
is no danger on this score, as the honey combs are filled as 
fast as they are built, and the 
queen, should she move to the 
super, would soon leave it, owing 
to her inability to lay there. In 
localities where the crop is lasting 
and intermittent, much advantage 
has been derived from the use of 
the Collin perforated zinc (191). Fio . 175 

The only obstacle to its use, is perforated zinc. 

that it hinders ventilation and free ( F *° m Root ' s "Gleanings.") 
access for the bees. 

733. 4th. Swarming with comb-honey production. 
As the directions given by us elsewhere (465) do not 
altogether prevent swarming, when comb-honey is raised, 
and as the swarming of a colony usualty ends its surplus 
production for the season, it has been found advisable to 
give the surplus cases to the swarm, instead of leaving them 
on the o'.d hive. To further strengthen the swarm, which 
is thus depended upon for surplus, it is placed on the stand 
of the old hive, and the latter is removed to a new location. 
This is a very practical method. It is due to Messrs. 
Heddon and Hutchinson, — at least they have popularized 
it. But the prudent Apiarist, who follows this course, will 
keep a vigilant eye on the old colony, thus deprived of all 
its working force, and will help it, if needed. 




COMB HONEY. 419 

734. 5th. Preventing the bees from " propoltzing."* 

" Propolis on sections is a nuisance, be the same little or 
much, and a plan which will allow of the filling of the section 
with nice comb honey without changing the clean appearance 
which they present when placed upon the hive, will be heralded 
with delight by all, and give great honor to him who works out 
the plan."— G. M. Doolittle, " Gleanings," page 171. 1886. 

We have shown (238) that bees u propolize " every 
crack, and daub with this yellowish or brownish glue every 
thing inside of their hive. This is very hard to clean, and 
it can never be removed sufficiently to restore to the sec- 
tions their original whiteness. 

" All four sides of the sections are scraped clean of propolis, 
and the edges as well. It is not a difficult job for a careful hand, 
but a very disagreeable one. The fine dust of the bee-glue is 
very unpleasant to breathe. A scraper should be a careful per- 
son, or in ten minutes' time he will do more damage than his 
day's work is worth. Even a careful person seems to need to 
spoil at least one section, before taking the care necessary to 
avoid injuring others. But when the knife makes an ugly gash 
in the face of a beautiful white section of honey, that settles it 
that care will be taken afterward." — Dr. C. C. Miller : " A Year 
Among the Bees." 

To prevent propolizing, the sections should be fitted 
tightly together, and as little of their outside as possible 
exposed to the bees. The honey should be removed promptly, 
when sealed, before the bees have time to do much gluing 
(237). 

735. 6th. Securing sealed comb honey. For this pur- 
pose no more cases should be given than the bees are likely 
to fill. The second case should not be added until the first 
is nearly filled. The outside sections, being the last filled, 
may not be sealed at all, unless the bees are somewhat 
crowded for loom. To remedy this, many bee-keepers are 

*This\vord " propolizing ' ' is unauthorized by Webster, but it is needed 
as a technic word. 



420 HONEY PRODUCTION. 

in the habit of "tiering out," instead of "tiering up;" 
that is, they put the empty or unfinished sections in the 
middle of the super, removing all that are filled, or placing 
them on the outside. This is an increase of labor, but some 
hold ihat it pa} x s. Mr. Doolittle, in his practical pamphlet, 
"My Management," explains that, at the close of the honey 
season, he reduces the number of sections on the hive, by 
narrowing up the surplus room, with a division board, which 
he calls a " follower." Mr. Doolittle uses both side and 
top-storing in his hives. 

" As the cases are raised from the sides at this time, the fol- 
lower is moved up, so as to shut the bees out of half the side 
cases, unless in case of some extremely populous colony. By 
this means the working force is throwm into a more compact 
space, the result of which is a tendency tow T ard completing the 
sections they have commenced work in, rather than building 
comb in more. After a week I go over the whole yard again, this 
time shutting the bees out of the side boxes entirely, which 
throws the full force of the bees into the top boxes, and, although 
the honey-season may now be over, by getting this force of bees 
all together they will cap the partly-filled boxes, where they 
otherwise would not. This gives sections lighter in weight, but 
makes much more of our crop in a salable form." 

736. It very often happens that the bees fasten the comb 
onl} T at the top of the section. For safe transportation it 
is very important that it should be fastened to the section 
wall, all around. To secure this, not only do Apiarists use 
foundation (674), but some have devised "reversible" 
section cases. When the sections are turned over, the 
empty space now at the top, seems unnatural to the bees, 
and the} T hasten to fill it, making a solid comb in the sec- 
tion. But this is not the only method. 

"Years ago my sections were always filled so full by the bees, 
that they carried very securely in transportation. Afterwards I 
began to have trouble from combs breaking down. It was due, 
perhaps, mainly to the bees having too much surplus room. 
Some sections would be filled with a nice comb of honev, not 



COMB HONEY. 421 

very strongly attached at the top, very little at the side, and not 
at all at the bottom. Aside from depending upon crowding the 
bees to make them fill the sections, I wanted a plan whereby I 
could be sure of having the sections fastened at the bottom as 
well as at the top. I tried to take partly filled sections out of 
the supers and reversing them, and went so far as to invent a 
reversible super, I abandoned this however, and adopted the 
plan of putting a starter in the bottom as well as at the top of 
the section." ( u A Year Among the Bees."} 

Dr. Miller, who is an authority on comb honey produc- 
tion, further states that he uses a foundation "starter" one 
inch wide at the bottom, and wide enough at the top to 
leave only \ inch of room between the two. This allows 
for the slight stretching usual in comb foundat on. 

737. To prevent the building- of bridges between the 
upper and lower stories, some Apiarists use the Heddon 
skeleton or slatted honey board (fig. 76), which is separated 
from both the super and the brood chamber by a bee space, 
and in which the slats break the joints or passages of the 
bees thus — £3 — iZE — 

This honey board answers its purpose, but we object to 
it, because it places the supers in less direct communi- 
cation with the brood chamber. 

We will now consider a few of the various cases and 
crates used in the production of comb honey. 

738. The deep broad frames (fig. 171), have the deci- 
ded advantage of allowing the Apiarist to use sections in a 
full size upper story. In limited comb honey production, 
they can probably be used with satisfaction. They also 
allow of a side storage as practiced by Mr. Doolittle. 

The half story broad frames, are superior to the 
former, — though they require special cases, — because the 
bees can be confined to a shallow space, and when the crop 
is limited, or the weather cool, the sections are better and 
more promptly finished. We prefer half story comb honey 
supers, for the same reason we do half story extracting 



422 HONEY PRODUCTION. 

supers. Apiarists, who will follow our methods for extract- 
ing and raise but little comb honey, will see the benefit of 
using the same cases for both grades. 

Mr. Heddon's invertible broad frames, in invertible sec- 
tion cases, are undoubtedly a good thing, especially as they 
are crowded together by the pressure of screws or offsets. 

739. The section crate, invertible or not, is now used 
by the majorit}" of specialists. Messrs. Miller, Shuck, Arm- 
strong, Manum, Foster, all comb honey producers, have 
each a particular style of crate. Mr. C. C. Miller places 
his sections in crates without top or bottom, three-eighths 
of an inch deeper than the sections. To support the sec- 
tions in these boxes he nails, under both ends, a strip of 
tin, which projects one fourth inch inside. Strips of tin, 
bent in the form of an L and soldered back to back, to 
form three inverted T's (fig. 170), are supported, across the 
box, by six small pieces of sheet iron, nailed at regular 
intervals under the sides of the box. Mr. A. I. Root im- 
proved these T as seen in the figure. These crates holding 
28 or 32 sections, can be piled upon one another, leaving a 
bee space between them, while a similar bee space is pro- 
vided between the sections and the slats of the skeleton 
honey board (fig. 76), by the shape of the latter. 

740. Another way was contrived by Mr. Manum, of 
Bristol, Vermont, whose success in raising comb honey is 
well known. 

He also uses a box without top or bottom, and holding 
only one row of 2-lb. sections, or two rows of 1 lb., eight 
to ihe row. These boxes, too, have strips of tin nailed under 
both sides and a band of sheet iron, for a cross-piece, run- 
ning from end to end. A thumbscrew placed at one end, 
and acting on an offset, presses the sections against each 
other, and keeps the separators in place. Mr. Manum 
has used these clamps for several years and is well satisfied 
with them. 



COMB HONEY. 



423 



By the use of the Manum clamps, the sections are placed 
so closely that the bees cannot put any propolis between 
their edges. But their other parts are not protected. 

741. To our mind, the implements invented by Mr. 
Oliver Foster, of Mount Vernon, Iowa, are worthy of notice 
and his conceptions of the general management of sections are 
so well explained, that we could not do better than copy a 
few pages of his small pamphlet. 

"There should be free communication between the sections in 
every direction. They should have deep slots on all 8 edges as 
shown in Fig. 176 so that bees can pass freely over the combs from 
end to end of the case, as well as from side to side, and from top 
to bottom. 




(From 



Fiv. 17fi. 
OPEN SECTIONS. 
'How to Raise Comb Honey.") 



"You may not appreciate the importance of this until you 
have tried them. 

" When we take into consideration that the object on the part of the bees 
in storing up honey in Summer, is to have it accessible for Winter con- 
sumption, and that in Winter, the bees collect in a round ball, as nearly 
as possible, in a semi-torpid sta'e with but little if any motion, except that 
gradual moving of bees froyn the center to the surface and from the sur- 
face to the center of this ball, we may imagine how unwelcome it is to 
them to be obliged to divide their stores between four separate apartments, 
each of which is four inches square and twelve inches long, with no com- 
munication between these apartments. ." 

The italics are ours. This passage is most important. 



424 



HONEY PRODUCTION. 




742. "The case is made of four plane boards, B, B, C, C, (tig. 
177). They are cut 1-16 in. narrower than the sections are high. 
A side and an end are nailed together in the form of a letter L. 
When two of these L shaped sections are placed together, they 
form the rectangular case, open at two opposite corners diagon- 

A, A, A, Section Boxes. 

B, B, C, C, Plane side and end 
. boards . 

D, D, folded tin corner plates. 

E, E, Flanges folded outward 
on ends of D . 

F, F, Tin wedges which hold 
the case tight on the sections 
after clamping. 

J, J, J, Iron clamp by which 
the case is drawn tight on 
the sections both ways. 

H, H, Heads of nails through 
slots I. 

O, O, O, Tin Separator in 
place. 

P, P, Narrow tin strips sup- 
porting separators. 
N, N, N, Slotted honey board , 

ally. The boards are mitred together at these open corners and 
are clasped together by the tin angle plate D. These corner 
plates are also bent L shape. 

" They are as high when folded as the sections, and 3 £ inches 
from the corner to each end. They have a small flange, bent 
outward on each end, E, and a double fold bent inward on each 
side, which forms sockets f inch wide in which the end of the 
boards slide in and out, thus expanding or contracting the case in 
length and w T idth. 

" The folded side edges of the tin slide in saw grooves cut in 
the edges of the boards, are shown in the small figures, and the 
case is held rigid, wiiether open or closed. A small nail is driven 
through each of the slots I, into the wood, to prevent the case 
from opening farther than about \ inch larger each way than 
when closed. 

"The case when closed is a little smaller than the tier of sec- 
tions to be used. 

4t To fill the case it is placed on a level board and opened out. 
The sections are then carelessly arranged inside, and then drawn 
into position by pressing the case together. A wrought iron 
clamp, J, is then slipped over the case, and by operating the 



COMB HONEY. 425 

screws, M, the case is drawn so tight on the sections that all 
cracks between them are closed up, thus protecting the surface 
of the boxes from being soiled. 

u . To prevent the spreading of the case when the clamp is 
removed, four simple tin wedges, F, F, are slipped under the 
flange, and the nail head. 

" This bottomless case of sections is then placed on the hive on 
a slotted honey board, which is level on top and has slots to cor- 
respond with those between the sections, save that the slots in 
the board are a little narrower, to secure perfect protection to the 
sections. If separators are used, they are simply dropped in be- 
tween the rows of sections as each row is put in. (See O, fig. 177). 
They rest on the edges of two narrow strips of tin, P, P, that 
pass across each end of the case between the rows of sections at 
the bottom. These strips are movable, and securely held in 
place while handling, like the sections, by the lateral pressure 
of the case. The iron clamp is not a necessity, but it is very 
convenient where several colonies are kept. The case is equally 
adapted to use with or without separators. It can be used 
with or without an outer case. It can be ' tiered up ', ' reversed ', 
(inverted) or placed on end or on one side for ' side storing '." 

143. In removing the cases from the hive, apply the clamp 
and lift all together, or open the case and take out one box at a 
time, using a little smoke, and shaking and brushing off the 
bees. Nearly all of the bees can be shaken from a single case- 
full before opening it ; but the neatest way to get them out is to 
place the cases in an empty hive a little to one side of the front of 
the hive from which they were taken. . Fasten a wire cloth tube 
over the only opening at the entrance of this empty hive. Make 
the tube 6 inches long, f inch in diameter at the small end, and 1£ 
inch at the end attached to the hive. Place the hive in position 
so that the point of the tube will touch the front end of the hive 
containing the colony. In a few moments, the bees will be march- 
ing ' double quick ' out through the tube, and in an hour or so 
every bee will be out." (Oliver Foster, "How to Raise Comb 
Honey." 1886.) 

We advise every bee-keeper to procure this small pam- 
phlet. 

744. In support of what Mr. Foster wrote in behalf of 
the open-side sections, we may add that bees seem to con- 
sider a row of these sections as formed of a single comb, 



426 HONEY PRODUCTION. 

and that, in consequence, they attach each small comb to 
the sides, giving them more solidity. For the same reason 
bees are also less inclined to make bulged combs, and separ- 
ators ma} T be set aside with less risk of lack of uniformity. 
Another and very important point, in favor of these sec- 
tions, is the increased facility to ripen honey by evapora- 
tion, for the air can easily circulate from side to side, instead 
of from top to bottom only, as when closed-side sections 
are used. 

745. Before closing our chapter on the production of 
comb-honey, in which we have tried to give our readers some 
of the best known methods, we must warn them against using 
too many contrivances, whenever they can possibly help it. 
All improvements that are made must be based on a full con- 
sideration of the instincts of the bees. Like Mr. Hutchinson 
("Production of Comb-Honey" p. 18), we " have seen bees 
sulk for days during a good honey flow, simply because the 
present condition of things was not to their liking." Use 
as large sections as your market will allow. If you use 
separators and hone3 T -boards, at all, let them be light and 
perforated. In a word, make 3 T our bees feel as natural and 
as much " at home" as possible. 

Extracted Honey. 

746. To separate the honey from the wax, the bee- 
keepers of old used to melt or break the comb and drain 
the honey out. 

Beeswax, as a sweet-scented luminiferous substance, far 
superior to oils or the crude grease of animals, was greatly 
appreciated by the priests, and placed among the best offer- 
ings required to please the gods. The custom of offering wax. 
or wax candles, continued to this day by some churches, 
especially by the Greek and Roman Catholic churches, 



EXTRACTED HONEY. 427 

caused for centuries the levy of heavy taxes, payable in 
beeswax, in countries where the inhabitants kept bees. 
Some countries, in Europe, had to pa} T to the church, every 
year, several hundred thousand pounds of beeswax. Such 
taxes compelled the bee-keepers to separate the honey from 
the wax with as little waste as possible. 

Different grades of honey were harvested by the careful 
Apiarists. The light-colored combs produced a light-colored 
and pure honey ; the combs which had contained brood pro- 
duced turbid honey of inferior quality. 

747. These primitive methods were afterwards greatly 
ameliorated, as for instance, in the French province of Ga- 
tinais, where the bee-keepers used the heat of the sun to 
melt the combs, and sepaiate the honey from the melted 
wax. The choice honey obtained in Gatinais, from the 
sainfoin, cannot be excelled by our best extracted clover 
honey, as to color and taste, and it is sold in Paris alto- 
gether. 

Owing to these causes, strained honey, of different grades, 
was a staple in Europe. But the demand being ahead of 
the supply, especial' y when the season was unfavorable 
for bees, Europe imported strained honey from Chili, and 
Cuba, and lately, extracted honey from California. 

748. These causes did not exist in this country. Bees 
were scarce here at first. The American settlers had too 
much work on hand to care much for bees. The few who 
owned a limited number of colonies, brimstoned one of them 
occasionally, and consumed the honey at home. The more 
extensive bee owners could sell some broken combs to their 
neighbors, or a few pounds of strained honey to the drug- 
gist, who was not very hard to please, being accustomed to 
buy Cuba honey, harvested with the most slovenly careless- 
ness. By and by, howe\er, owing to very favorable condi- 
tions, the wild woods swarmed with bees in the "hollow 
trees," and the bee-hunter made his appearance. Thous- 



428 HONEY PRODUCTION. 

ands of trees fell under his ax, to }~ield the sweets that the} T 
contained. This rough-and-ready bee-keeping, or rather 
bee-killing, produced comparatively large quantities of 
hone}< ; but, as this honey was nearly always badly broken up 
and mixed with pollen, dead bees, and rotten wood, it be- 
came customary to boil the honey, so as to- force the impuri- 
ties and the wax to rise on top with the scum. Hence the 
cheap, liquid, dirty and opaque strained honey, dark in 
color and strong in taste. By the side of this unwholesome 
article, a little fancy comb honey was sold, that led to a 
national preference for comb honey. 

Bu in view of the cost of comb to the bees (223), inhoney, 
time and labor, it was earnestly desired by progressive bee- 
keepers, especially after the invention of the movable frames, 
that some process be devised to empty the honey out of the 
combs without damaging the latter, so that they could be 
returned to the bees to be filled again and again. 

749. In 1865 the late Major de Hruschka, of Dolo, near 
Venice, Italy, invented " II Smelatore," the honey ex- 
tractor. 

It happened in this wise: He had given to bis son, a 
small piece of comb honey, on a plate. The boy put the 
plate in his basket, and swung the basket around him, 
like a sling. Hruschka noticed that some honey had been 
drained out by the motion, and concluded that combs could 
be emptied by centrifugal force. 

This invention was hailed, in the whole bee-keeping world, 
as equal to, and the complement of, the invention of mova- 
ble frames ; and it fully deserved this honor. 

750. As soon as we heard of the discovery, we had a 
machine made. It was not so elegant as those which are 
now offered by our manufacturers. It was a bulk} T and 
cumbersome affair; four feet in diameter and three feet 
high ; yet it worked to our satisfaction, and we became con- 



EXTRACTED HONEY. 429 

vinced, by actual trial, of the great gain which could be 
obtained, by returning the empt}^ combs to the bees. 

751. Let us say here, that the profit was greater than we 
had anticipated ; but we, together with a great many others, 
first committed the fault of extracting, before the honey 
was altogether ripened by evaporation. Like "Novice," 
who thought of emptying his cistern to put the overflow of 
his extracted honey, we had to go to town again and again, 
for jars and barrels, to lodge our crop. But experience 
taught us that we cannot get a good merchantable article, 
unless the honey is ripe. 

752. If we give to bees empty combs, to store their 
honey, we will find, by comparing the products of colonies 
who have to build their combs, with those of colonies who 
always have empty combs to fill, that these last produce 
at least twice as much as the others. 

A little consideration will readily show, to the intelligent 
bee-keeper, the great advantages given to the bees by 
furnishing them with a full supply of empty combs. To 
illustrate all these advantages, let us compare two colonies 
of bees, of equal strength, at the beginning of the honey 
season ; one with empty boxes, the other with empty comb 
in the boxes. 

The two colonies have been breeding plentifully, and 
harvesting a large quantity of pollen, and a little honey, 
for several weeks past. The brood chamber is full from 
top to bottom. After perhaps one rainy day, the honey 
crop begins. The bees that have been given empty combs 
can go right up in them, and begin storing, as fast as 
they bring their honey from the fields. Not a minute 
is lost; and as they have plenty of storing room, there is 
no need of crowding the queen out of her breeding cells. 

In the other hive, there is indeed plenty of empty space 
in the upper story ; but before it can be put to any use, it 
has to be first partly filled with combs. Before a half day 



430 honey' production. 

is over, the greater part of the bees have harvested, and 
brought, to their newly-hatched companions, all the honey 
that the latter can possibly hold in their sacks. What shall 
they do with the surplus? They have to go into that upper 
story, and hang there (205) for hours, waiting for the 
honey to be transformed into beeswax, by the wonderful ac- 
tion of these admirable little stomachs, whose work man can- 
not imitate, despite his science. But, while this slow trans- 
formation is going on, while the small scales of wax are 
emerging from under the rings of the abdomen (201) of 
each industrious little worker ; while their sisters are slowly 
but busily carrying, moulding and arranging the warm little 
pieces of wax in their respective places, in order to build 
the frail comb (206); during all this time, the honey is 
flowing in the blossoms, and the other colony is fast increas- 
ing its supply of sweets. Meanwhile, the few bees, which 
have found a place for their load, go back after more, and, 
finding no room, they watch for the appearance of each 
hatching bee, from its cell, and at once fill that cell with 
honey ; thus depriving the queen of her breeding-room, 
and forcing her to remain idle, at a time when she should 
be laying most busily. 

The loss is therefore treble. First, this colony loses the 
present work of all the bees which have to remain inside to 
help make wax. Secondly, it loses the honey of which this 
wax is made. Thirdly, it loses the production of thousands 
of workers, by depriving the queen of her breeding-room, 
in the brood-chamber. All this, for what purpose? To 
enable the owner to eat his honey with the wax (719); 
when, as every one well knows, wax is tasteless and in- 
digestible. 

One word more in regard to the loss of production, by 
the crowding of the queen. This loss is two-fold in itself. 
When the bees find that the queen is crowded out of her 



EXTRACTED HONEY. 431 

breecling-room, they become more readily induced to make 
preparations for swarming (406). 

It is then that a large number of 3 T oung bees would be 
necessary to make up for the loss which the colony will sus- 
tain, in the departure of the swarm ; and yet the dimi- 
nished number of eggs laid produces exactly the reverse 
of the desired result. 

There is perhaps a fourth item of loss, in failing to 
furnish empty combs to this colony, and that when the 
season is not very favorable. Man}^ practical bee-keepers 
have noticed that, in rather unfavorable seasons, it is diffi- 
cult to induce bees to work in an empty surplus box, 
which they would work in readily if it were furnished 
with combs. It is a question which may remain doubt- 
ful, whether the bees do not sometimes, in such cases, 
remain idle for a day or two, rather than begin building 
comb in a box which they do not expect to be able to fill. 

753. In view of the above facts, and after an experience 
of twenty years with the honey extractor, we strongly urge 
all beginners to produce extracted honey in preference to 
comb-honey, wherever they can sell it readily for half as 
much as comb honey. We have shown the advantages of 
its production to the bees; let us now show the advantages 
to the Apiarist. 

754. 1st. He can control, and take care of, a much 
greater number of colonies. The manipulations of an Apiary, 
run for extracted honey, occupy less than one half of the time 
required for the production of comb-honey. Our largest 
comb-honey producers acknowledge that one man cannot 
handle more than two hundred colonies successfully, when 
run for comb-honey (719), while as many as five hundred 
colonies, located in different Apiaries (582), are managed 
successfully by one Apiarist, when run for extracted honey 
During extracting time, of course, additional help is re- 



432 



HONEY PRODUCTION. 



quired, but this needs not be skilled labor, which is always 
hard to find. 

755. 2d. By the production of extracted honey, the 
surplus combs are saved, and given to the bees at the open- 
ing of the following harvest. This virtually does away with 
natural swarming, and enables the bee-keeper to control 
the increase of his colonies to suit his desires. One of the 
most successful comb-honey producers, Mr. Manum, of Ver- 
mont, who sold some 15 tons of comb-honey in 1885, 
acknowledged to us, that with his management in the pro- 
duction of comb-hone}^, it was nearly impossible to control 
swarming, and that the time was not far distant when he 
would have too many bees. He owned seven hundred 
colonies at the time. 

756. The farmer, or merchant, who keeps only a few 
hives, to produce honey for his own use, will find it much 
preferable to produce extracted honey. With three colonies 
of bees and an extractor, in a very ordinary location, from 
150 to 300 lbs. of honey can be produced on an average, 
every season. 




Fig. 178. 
TWO HALF-STORY SUPERS FOR EXTRACTING. 

757. For the production of extracted hone} r , we use half 
stories or cases (fig. 178) with frames 6 inches deep, and 
of the same length as the frames of the lower story. We 
also use full-story supers, but only on standard Langstroth 



Plate 14. 




FRANCESCO Di HRUSCHKA, 

Inventor of the Honey Extractor. 



This Apiarist is mentioned page 42S. 



EXTRACTED HONEY. 433 

hives, and we decidedly prefer the half-story supers, for 
several reasons, after having used both-kinds on a large 
scale for years. 

The frames of the half- story supers are more easily hand- 
led when full, and the combs are less apt to break down 
from heat or handling. The half-story super is better 
suited for the use of an average colony, and in cool weather 
is more easily kept warm by the bees, than a full-story. 
Very strong colonies, in extraordinary seasons, can be 
readily accommodated with two and even three of these 
cases successively. 

758. With the full-story supers, the queen and the bees 
are more apt to desert the lower story altogether, in poor 
honey seasons, and establish their brood-nest in the upper 
story, especially when the combs of the lower or brood 
chamber are old, and those above are new. The sole ad- 
vantage of the full- story super is that the frames in it are 
exactly of the same size as those below, and can be inter- 
changed with them if necessary ; but with large hives it will 
never be required to use upper story combs for feed- 
ing, and even if the queen should breed in these shallow 
cases, at times, she is soon crowded out of them by the sur- 
plus honey. 

759. The upper story frames are filled with comb found- 
ation (674), or even with old worker comb, and can be 
used indefinitely, since the honey is extracted from them, 
and they are returned unbroken to the bees. We have now 
several thousands of these combs, some of which have 
already passed fifteen or twenty times through the extractor 
and are now as good as at first, nay, even better ; for some, 
which were very dark, are lighter in color now, on account 
of the dark cells having been shaved by the honey knife 
and mended, by the bees, with new wax. These supers are 
given to the bees, a few days previous to the opening of the 
honey crop. 

28 



434 HONEY PRODUCTION. 

The mat (352), and cloth (353), are removed and the 
upper story is placed immediately over the frames (fig. 68). 

760. One great advantage of this style of supers, lies in 
the facility, with which the bees can reach the upper story 
from any comb, or from any part of a comb, either to de- 
posit their hone}' or for ventilation, during hot weather. 
Bees show their preference for these large receptacles very 
decidedly. For comparison, let two or three broad frames 
(299) — filled with sections which are of more difficult venti- 
lation and access — be placed in the center of one of these 
supers with some extracting frames on each side, all equally 
filled with strips of foundation (674), and the small sec- 
tions (721) will be filled last almost in every instance, even 
although placed nearest to the center of the brood-nest. 

Mr. Langs.troth was the first to call the attention of Apia- 
rists to the loss incurred by compelling bees to store the 
surplus honey in small receptacles. The bee-keeper cannot 
afford to sell honey stored in small sections, except at a 
considerable advance over its value in large frames. Colo- 
nies, which do not have the breeding apartment nearly full 
of brood, honey and pollen, need not be supplied with 
supers (757), till they show a marked progress. 

761. After the opening of the honey crop, which is very 
easily noticed by the greater activity of the bees and the 
whitening of the upper cells of their combs, a regular inspec- 
tion of their progress is necessary. The season is short, 
but the daily yield is sometimes enormous. 

762 Mr. A. Braun stated, in the Bienenzeitung , Sep- 
tember, 1854, that he had a mammoth hive furnished with 
combs containing at least 184,230 cells,* and placed on a 
platform scale, that its weight might readily be ascertained 

* Such a hive would hold about three husnels Mr. Wildman says that ' 'a 
clergyman set a well stocked hive of bees on a tub turne;! bottom up, after 
having made a hole through the bottom, and took from the tub four hundred 
and twenty pounds of honey." 



EXTRACTED HONEY. 435 

at stated periods. On the eighteenth of May it gained 
eighteen pounds and a half. On the eighteenth of June, a 
swarm weighing seven pounds issued from it, and the follow- 
ing day it gained over six pounds in weight. Ten days of 
abundant pasturage would enable such a colony to gather a 
large surplus, while five times the number of equally favor- 
able opportunities would be of small avail to. a feeble one. 

The largest yield of extracted honey, ever harvested by 
the colonies of one Apiary under our control, was 13,000 
pounds in about fifty days, the most protracted honey crop 
we ever knew. This was harvested by eighty-seven colonies, 
making a daily average of three pounds a day per colony of 
evaporated honey. Such seasons are scarce. 

As some colonies harvest much more than others, they 
need more attention. 

763. To secure the greatest possible amount of extracted 
honey, the colony should never be left without some empty 
comb. 

As soon as the combs of one of these supers are about 
three-fourths full, we put another rack under the first, and 
sometimes a third under the second. All this without wait- 
ing for the honey to be sealed ; but we never remove the 
honey, to extract it, until the crop is at an end, for we want 
to get our honey entirely ripened. 

Honey is evaporated, or ripened, by the forced circula- 
tion of air, caused by the fanning of the bees through the 
hive, in connection with the great heat generated by them. 
As honey evaporates, it diminishes in volume, and as long 
as the bees continue their harvest, they constantly bring in 
unripened, or watery honey, which they store in the partly 
filled cells that contain honey already evaporated. It is for 
this reason that unsealed honey, after the crop is over, is as 
ripe as honey sealed during the crop, and sometimes riper. 
If the crop is abundant, they often seal their combs too 
soon, and the honey thus sealed may afterwards ferment in 
the cell and burst the capping. 



436 EXTRACTED HONEY. 

764. Some Apiarists extract the honey as fast as it is 
harvested by the bees, and afterwards ripen it artificially by 
exposing it to heat in open vessels. We do not like this 
method, and prefer to extract the whole crop at once. It 
is much more economical, for, with our system, one skilled 
man attends to as many as five or six Apiaries during the 
honey crop, and extracts at leisure afterwards, with almost 
any kind of cheap help. Since honey now has to compete 
in price with the cheapest sweets, the question of econom- 
ical production is not to be disregarded. 

" He who produces at maximum cost will fail. He who 
produces at minimum cost will succeed." — (Jas. Heddon.) 

765. As some colonies do not begin work in the supers 
until very late, and do not fill all the space given them, the 
surplus of other colonies can be given them in such a man- 
ner that all will be equally filled. This can be done without 
brushing the bees off (485). 

The equalizing of empty combs in the surplus stories of 
different colonies, towards the end of the crop, will save 
time in extracting, as the supers will be found more evenly 
full. The giving of a few combs of honey to a colon}^ that 
has not yet begun work in the supers also acts as an induce- 
ment, and gives the bees new energy. 



HARVESTING. 

766. The extracting, to be done swiftly, requires the 
work of four persons : three men and a boy. This work 
is done at a time when the bees have ceased to make 
honey, and the greatest care has to be exercised not to 
leave any honey within the reach of robber bees. The work 
of opening the hives, removing the combs and brushing off 
the bees, must be done quietly, but swiftly and care- 
fully. The receptacles for combs should each have a 



HARVESTING. 437 

cover, and the hive should be closed and its entrance re- 
duced, as promptly as possible. In this way, there is not 
the least danger of robbing; but if robbing is once begun, 
by some carelessness or forgetfulness of the operator, the 
work has to be stopped until it has subsided. A basin of 
water and a towel, placed near at hand, are found to be very 
convenient, when the hives are very full ; as the operator 
and his help sometimes get their fingers sticky with honey. 

767. The utensils needed for neat extracting on a large 
scale are : In the Apiary, — a good smoker (382), one or 
two brushes made of asparagus tops, or some other light 
fibrous material, a wood chisel to loosen the cases, two tin 
pans, described farther on (770), one comb bucket, and 
two strong linen or cotton " robber cloths," which can be 
carbolized beforehand by the Raynor process (384). 

768. The "robber cloths", so named by Dr. C. C. 
Miller, are used to cover the cases to keep away robbers. 
They are made of very coarse cloth or gunny, about a yard 
square. 

" Take two pieces of lath, each about as long as the hive, and 
lay one upon the other, with one edge of the cloth between 
them. The cloth is longer than the lath, allowing 6 inches or 
more of the cloth to project at each end of the lath. Now nail 
the laths together with lh inch wire nails, clinching them. 
Serve the opposite end the same way, and the robber cloth 
is complete. You can take hold of the lath with one hand, lift 
the cloth from a hive or super, and with a quick throw, instantly 
cover up again your hive or super perfectly bee tight." ("A 
Year Among the Bees," 1886.) 

769. The operator opens a hive, removes the super, 
places it in a tin pan (770), and covers it with a robber 
cloth. He then examines the brood chamber, from which 
one or two combs may be removed if advisable. We usually 
leave all the honey in the lower story, unless the bees are 
crowded out of breeding room, which will not happen, if 
they have plenty of room above. 



438 



EXTRACTED HONEY. 



When any comb is removed from the brood chamber., the 
bees are shaken off in front of the hive, the remaining 
ones are brushed off, and the comb is placed in the comb 
bucket (fig. 85). The hive is then closed, an empty sur- 
plus case (fig. 178) is placed in a second tin pan, and the 
combs of the filled case are, one after another, shaken and 
brushed in front of the hive and transferred to the empty 
case. The assistant, usually an apprentice, can help a great 




Fig. 179. 

novice's extractor. 

(From the "A.B.C.of Bee Culture.") 



deal in this, and if the bees are handled according to rules, 
no one need be stung. When the combs are all transferred, 
the assistant carries the case to the honey room, while the 
Apiarist prepares to open another colony ; the case which 



HARVESTING. 



439 



has just been emptied serving to transfer the combs of the 
next super. 

When the harvest is large, a wheel-barrow may be used 
to bring the honey to the honey room. 

770. In the honey house, there should be an extractor, 
a capping can, (fig. 183) a honey knife, a funnel with sieve, 
a pail, a barrel, and two tin pans like those used in the 



__ 




Fi~. 180. 

muth's honey knife. 



Apiarjr. The floor may be covered with painted, or oil-cloth, 
or strong enamel-cloth, in case any honey is spilled ; each 




Fig. 181. 

THE MUTH'S EXTRACTOR SHOWING 

HIS SLANTING BASKET. 




Fig. 182. 
EXCELSIOR EXTRACTOR. 
(From "Bees & Honey.") 



person may be provided with a good enamel-cloth apron, 
and all the windows furnished with wire cloth netting, to 



440 



EXTRACTED HONEY 



allow the bees to escape (586). The tin pans above men- 
tioned are shallow, in the shape of bread pans, large enough 
to receive one of the supers freely, to keep the leaking 
honey from daubing anything, or from attracting robbers 
(666). They are supplied with strong handles. 

771. We have said that we do not usually take honey 
from the brood chamber, but in an emergency we some'.imes 
extract even from combs containing brood. We never no- 
ticed any loss of worker brood unless it was actually thrown 
out. If a few worker larvae are displaced by the rotation, 
the bees push them back to the bottom of the cells. In all 
cases, when there is brood, the crank must be turned slowly. 




Fig. 183. 
THE DADANT CAPPING-CAN. 

772. In the extracting room, a man, the shaver, as we 
call him, uncaps the combs, as fast as thej^ are brought. 
He stands before the capping-can (fig. 183). The capping 
can is formed of a lower can B, 24 inches wide and 14 inches 
high with a slanting bottom, a faucet and a central pivot C. 



HARVESTING. 441 

On this lower can is placed another can A, 23 inches wide 
and 22 inches high, with a coarse wire cloth bottom resting 
at the center on the pivot C. The upper can acts as a large 
sieve. On the top of it is placed a wooden frame D, notched, 
so as to fit on the edges of the can. It is on this frame that the 
combs are uncapped, and the cappings fall in the sieve, 
where the honey drains out of them, into the lower can. 
Our capping can is meant to hold the cappings of two 
days' extracting. 

773. The all-metal extractors, of different makes, are 
the only ones now in use. Two-frame extractors are the 
most common, but we use four- frame extractors altoge- 
ther, one in each Apiary. These extractors accommodate 
eight half-story frames. 

7 74. In regard to the honey or uncapping knife, justice 
compels us to say that, so far, to our knowledge, there is 
but one which is really practical, the Bingham honey knife. 




Fig. 184. 
THE BINGHAM KNIFE. 

This knife does away with the anno3^ance of having the 
cappings stick to the comb again, after having been shaved 
off, because it is made with a bevel, which causes the shaver 
to hold it in a slanting position, so that the cappings cannot 
stick to the comb again, unless purposely allowed to do so. 

As fast as the combs are uncapped on both sides, they 
are put into the extractor, which may be turned by a boy. 
Care should be taken that the combs, that are placed oppo- 
site one another, be of nearly equal weight, as the unequal 
weight causes the extractor to swing right and left, 
fatiguing the boy and injuring the machine. 

775. A quiet, regular motion is all that is necessary to 
throw the honey out, and, in warm weather, it fairly rains 



442 



HONEY PRODUCTION. 



against the sides of the can with a noise similar to that of a 
shower on a tin roof. 

776. Now is the time to invite the neighbors and their 
children to come to see the fun, and taste the golden nec- 
tar. Aside from the pleasure of making everybody happy, 
the present of a few pounds of honey proves an induce- 
ment to its use, and an advertisement for the producer. 




Fig. 185. 
THE STANLEY AUTOMATIC REVERSING EXTRACTOR. 



Extracting- day should always be understood to mean " free 
honey to all visitors." Let them visit the honey-room, and 
if the ladies get their dresses a little daubed while peeping 
in the extractor, they will soon find out that honey does 
not stain like grease, but will ivash off in warm water. 

777. After the combs are extracted on one side, they 
are turned over and extracted on the other. Mr. Stanley, 
of New York, invented an extractor (figure 185), in which, 



HARVESTING. 443 

the combs are turned over by simply reversing the motion 
of the gear. This invention has not been sufficiently tried 
to be proclaimed decidedly superior ; but it appears to have 
some advantages, the main drawbacks being the greater cost 
of the machine and its bulk. Similar extractors were intro- 
duced into England, by Mr. Cowan, several years ago. 

778. The extractor is fastened on a high platform, so 
that the honey pail can be put under the faucet. A barrel 
is in readiness, with the large funnel and sieve over it. This 
sieve should be large enough to take a pailful of honej^, so 
as to cause no delay. 

A mark is made on the barrel, with a crayon, or chalk, 
as each pailful is poured in. In this way we know when the 
barrel is full, without having to gauge it, and we avoid 
having the honey run over and waste. 

779. We would advise beginners, who extract for the first 
time, to go slowly and carefully. A little care, besides sav- 
ing time, will save the waste of several pounds of honey, and 
make things more comfortable ; for a pound of honey wasted 
goes a great way towards making everything sticky and 
dirty. If a splendid crop and neat work are pleasurable, 
a daubed honey-room and cross bees in the Apiary irritate 
both the Apiarist and his assistants, who soon become sick 
of the work. When things are rightly managed, the work 
is so delightful that more help can be found than is needed. 

780. Of all manipulations, extracting is that which re- 
quires the greatest precautions against robbing (664). 
Carefully avoid all unnecessary exposure of comb or honey. 
Robbers not only annoy the Apiarist, but they cause the 
bees to get angry, and to sting. 

781. All the cases, when extracted, are piled up on the 
oil- cloth carpet, till the day's work is done. The combs are 
never put back into the hive before evening, at sun down ; 
to prevent too much excitement in the Apiary. In half an 
hour, every hand helping, the whole number is distributed 



444 HONEY PRODUCTION. 

on the hives ; though we may have extracted as much as 
two thousand pounds in a da}'. 

There are seasons, in which a very slight continuation of 
the honey crop, permits returning the combs, as fast as 
they are extracted. In such seasons it causes no excite- 
ment, and is much more convenient. 

782. Within two or three days after extracting, the bees 
have cleaned the combs, and repaired them. But, to pre- 
vent the moths from injuring them, we keep them on 
the hives during the whole summer ; the bees take care of 
them, and in the Winter, we pile up the cases, carefully 
closed, in cold rooms, where the cold of Winter destroys 
the eggs of the moth (802). 

In localities, where there are two distinct crops of honey, 
each crop should be harvested separately. Thus, we al- 
ways extract the the June crop in July, and the Fall crop 
in September. 

783. Honey production, with the above methods, is so 
successful that the problem for practical Apiarists is no 
longer, how to produce large crops of honey, but how to 
sell it (839). Extracted honey can certainly be pro- 
duced, at less cost, than the cheapest of cane sugar, and it 
can be truly said, that in the last thirty years, there has 
been more progress in bee-culture, than in any other branch 
of rural economy. 



DISEASES OF BEES. 445 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

Diseases of Bees. 

784. Bees are subject to but few diseases that deserve 
special notice. We have said (626) that we consider diar- 
rhea as the result of an accumulation of foeces only, but 
Mr. Cheshire has examined some of the foeces of diarrhea, 
and found in some of them living organisms, which indicate 
that, sometimes, the distension of the abdomen is not 
caused by the overloading of the intestines alone. These 
organisms, when better known, will probably explain some 
of the losses of bees, after Winter, and the Spring dwin- 
dling (659), which reduces so many colonies. 

785. We have said also (665), that those bees, who 
are in the habit of robbing, assume a smooth, black ap- 
pearance. Mr. Cheshire thinks that this explanation of 
glossy black bees is inaccurate, and claims that an examin- 
ation of such bees has shown, in them, the presence of 
living organisms, which he named bacilli gaytoni, after 
Miss Gay ton, who found some of her colonies suffering from 
this disease, for three } T ears in succession. These organ- 
isms have since received, in England, the name of bacilli 
depilis. This last term means hairless, the bees affected 
with the disease losing all, or nearly all, their hair. We do 
not question the accuracy of the examination of these shinj^, 
hairless bees, but we know that bees who are habitual 
robbers lose their hair, and assume this sli.k, shiny appear- 
ance, without suffering any disease ; for they belong to 
healthy colonies, and are only a small exception among 
other bees. 



446 diseases of bees. 

Foul-Brood. 



786. There are other unimportant diseases, which have 
not yet been studied, but all are nothing, when com ared to 
the dreadful contagious malady, alread}^ known thousands of 
years ago* and commonly called foul-brood, because it 
shows its effects mainly by the dying of the brood, but the 
denomination is improper, for the brood is not alone dis- 
eased. 

" When we remember that bees live in the closest contact 
in very numerous colonies; that their usual system of inter- 
communication is by actual touch ; that they habitually pass food 
from one stomach to another, while all the food they have has 
been carried either within or upon the bodies of their fellows ; 
that their very home is formed of one of their secretions, and 
that their beds, cradles and larder are all interchangeable, we 
shall admit that the circumstances are such as would appear to 
favor the development of contagious diseases." — (Cheshire.) 

787. The scientific and indeed the true name of foul- 
brood is bacillus^ alvei, u small stick of bee-hives" because 
it is composed of living organisms resembling small sticks. 
It develops very rapidly, and has been found, by Schonfeld 
and by Cheshire, not only in the brood, bu in the bees and 
queens. The rapid depopulating of the colonies infested, 
coupled with the fact that Mr. Bertrand has known several 
queens to die in diseased colonies, leaves no doubt as to the 
accuracy of the microscopical experiments made by Che- 
shire, on queens who were found with ba villi, not only in 
their organs, but also in the half developed eggs of their 
ovaries. According to the English microscopists, there are 
two kinds of bacilli alvei, the major and the minor, the 

* As Aristotle {History of A nimais, Book IX , Chap. 40) speaks of a disease 
which is accompanied by adisgnsting smell of the hive, there" is reason to believe 
that foul-brood was common more thai two thousand years a^o. 

t Bacillus, plural bacilli, from the Latin, a stick. 



FOUL-BROOD. 447 

larger and the smaller (British Bee- Journal) , but are they 
equally to be feared? 

These imperceptible "sticks" break successively into 
several parts, every one of which forms a colony of spores, 
that pass through divers shapes before developing into new 
bacilli. We can judge of the promptness of their repro- 
duction, and of their minuteness, when we read in Cheshire, 
that a dead larva frequently contains as many as one billion 
of these spores (28). 

788. In the Bulletin Agricole du Departement cle VAube, 
Mr. Brunet narrates the experiments made by Mr. Marcel 
Dupont, to breed the bacilli of foul-brood. Knowing that 
Pasteur used beef-broth in this kind of experiments, Mr. 
Dupont filled three glass-tubes with unsalted beef-broth, pre- 
pared according to the directions given by Pasteur, and after 
sealing and boiling them, to kill any living organisms that 
might have existed inside, he introduced into two of them, 
with a fine needle, a small quantity of a liquid, in which 
particles from the body of a diseased larva had been dis- 
solved. One week after, the broth in both of these tubes, 
was cloudy and full of bacilli, while the liquid, in the third 
tube, had remained clear and unchanged. 

789. Description. As we have never seen a case of 
bacillus alvei, we will borrow from those who have been more 
" lucky" (?) than ourselves, a description of the disease, 
for its detection in hives, and the remedies recommended 
by the best authorities. 

" In most cases the larva is attacked when nearly ready to seal 
up. It turns slightly yellow, or grayish spots appear on it. It 
then seems to soften, settles down in the bottom of the cell, in a 
shapeless mass, at first white, yellow, or grayish in color, soon 
changing to brown. At this stage it becomes glutinous and ropy ; 
then, after a varying length of time, owing to the weather, it 
dries up into a dark coffee-colored mass. Usually the bees make 
no attempt to clean out infected cells, and they will sometimes 



448 DISEASES OF BEES. 

fill them with honey, covering up this dried foul-brood matter 
at the bottom. 

Sometimes the larvae do not die until sealed over. We have 
been told that such may be easily detected by a sunken cap- 
ping perforated by a " pin-hole ". This is by no means invariably 
the case. Such larvae will often dry up entirely, without the 
cap being perforated or perceptibly sunken, although it usually 
becomes darker in color than those covering healthy larvae. 

The most fatal misapprehension has been in regard to the smell 
of the disease. In its first stages there is no perceptible smell, 
and it is not until the disease has made a considerable progress 

§ - I 

P 

4 

m 

1 I 

if 



Fig 186. (From Cowan.) 
APPEARANCE OF FOUL-BROODY COMBS. 

that any unusual smell would be noticed by most persons. In 
the last stages, when sometimes half or more of the cells in the 
hive are filled with rotten brood, the odor becomes sufficiently 
pronounced, but the nose is not to be relied on to decide whether 
a colony has foul brood or not. Long before it can be detected 
by the sense of smell, the colony is in a condition to communi- 
cate the disease to others. 

The eye alone can be depended on, and it must be a sharp and 
trained eye too, if any headway is to be made in curing the 
disease. (J. A. Green, in "Gleanings, " 'anuary 1887. 

790. "Foul-brood can be detected in the Spring, cither 
through an unusual spreading of the brood, resulting from an 



FOUL-BROOD. 449 

unnoticed previous infection, of an indefinite number of cells, 
which contain sick or dead larvae, or, if the disease is just begin- 
ning, by the presence^ among the brood, of sick or rotten larvae. 
The larvae die and rot either before or after sealing. It is only 
when the disease has lasted for some time, that the cappings are 
punctured, and that the brood has an offensive odor. 

-' The spreading of brood in the Spring is not always caused 
by foul-brood. A defective queen, some old pollen in the cells, 
&c, may also cause it. The brood may die (we do not say rot) 
by other causes also, and we should regret to see our bee-keepers 
become unduly frightened, and make a useless inspection of 
all the brood in their hives, for such work is not an agree- 
able pastime. But if foul-brood has already appeared in the 
neighborhood, or in the Apiary, it is well to drive the bees from 
the brood-combs and to inspect the latter with a scrutinizing eye. 
We have sometimes diagnosticated foul-brood in hives which had 
but two or three sick larvae, barely turning yellow. When the 
disease has already spread, it strikes the eye. The brood is 
shapeless, yellow, brown, black, and the cappings change color 
and sink." — (Bertrand, Revue Internationale a" Apiculture.) 

791. Cure. Several methods of cure for foul-brood have 
been given, with more or less successful results. Mr. D. A. 
Jones, has written a small pamphlet, in which he gives his 
method. He removes all the broodless combs, from the 
infected colony, drives (473) or shakes the bees into a 
box covered with wire-cloth, leaving enough bees in the 
hive to take care of the brood, if it is worth saving ; and 
puts the driven bees in a dark cellar for three to six days, 
turning the box on its side so as to see the bees through 
the wire-cloth. He keeps them thus till he sees some of 
them dying from starvation. Then, he puts them into a clean 
hive, on comb-foundation, and feeds them with the honey 
that has been removed from their combs, after having boiled 
it with one-fifth of water. The bees that hatch from the 
brood receive the same treatment before being returned to 
their colonies ; all the combs are melted, and the hives, 
frames, &c, are boiled for ten minutes before being used 
again. Although Mr, Jones has been successful with this 
29 



450 DISEASES OF BEES. 

method, it has not proved effective in every case, for, since 
the bees and the queen may be contaminated in their or- 
gans (798), the disease, after a time, may reappear. Every 
means should be used to kill all the spores of the bacilli. 
Mr. Cheshire has kept some of them in a glass tube ("Bees 
and Beekeeping," page 560), and exposed them on several 
occasions to a temperature below frost, and they were alive 
after sixteen and a-half months. Mr. Jones reports having 
kept foul-brood combs exposed a whole winter to a temper- 
ature of 35 Q below zero, — in Canada, — without succeed- 
ing in killing the spores. ("Gleanings in Bee-Culture," 1884, 
page 767.) 

792. We will now give the method of Hilbert, as prac- 
ticed by Chas. F. Muth and described in his "Practical 
Hints:" 

"In April, I discovered two colonies in my Apiary, affected 
with the disease. 1 brimstoned the bees the same evening, 
burned up the combs and frames, and disinfected the hives. 
Another colony showed it in May. Feeling sorry to kill a 
beautiful queen, besides a very strong colony of pure Italians, I 
brushed them on ten frames of comb-foundation, into a clean hive, 
and placed over them a jar with food, as I shall describe hereaf- 
ter. The old combs and frames were burned up, and the hives 
disinfected. This feeding was kept up until all the sheets of 
comb-foundation were built out nicely and filled with brood and 
honey. It was a beautiful colony of bees about four weeks after- 
wards, full of healthy brood, and with combs as regular as can 
only be made by the aid of comb-foundation. Four more colonies 
were discovered infected, one after another. All went through 
the same process, and every one is a healthy colony at present. 
I was so convinced of the completeness of this cure, that I intro- 
duced into one of these colonies my first Cyprian queen sent me 
by friend Dad ant. 

" All are doing finely now, and no more foul-brood. Should, 
however, another one of my colonies show signs of the disease, 
it would not be because it had caught it from its neighbor which 
I had attempted to cure, but because the germ of foul-brood was 
hidden somewhere in the hive, and of late had come in contact 
with a larva. 



FOUL-BROOD. 451 

" The formula of the mixture is as follows : 
16 gr. salicylic acid 
16 gr. soda borax, 
1 oz. water. 

" I keep on hand a bottle of this mixture, so as to be always 
ready for an emergency ; also a druggist's ounce glass, so that 1 
may know what I am doing. My food was honey, with about 25 
per cent, water added. But we may feed honey or sugar syrup, 
adding to every quart of food an ounce of the above mixture. 
Bees being without comb and brood, partake of it readily, and 
by the time their comb-foundation is built out, you will find your 
colony in a healthy and prosperous condition. 

" Thus you see foul-brood can be rooted out completely, and 
without an extra amount of trouble, provided you are sufficiently 
impressed with its dangerous, insidious character, and are pre- 
pared to meet it promptly on its first appearance. 

" When an atomizer is used on combs and larvae the medicine 
should be only half as strong as given in the formula." 

793. Since our friend Muth wrote the above, Hilbert 
improved the method, by dispensing with soda borax, and 
adding to his treatment fumigations with evaporating sali- 
cylic acid. We give this new method, for it has been used 
successfully by Mr. Bertrand and several of his neighbors 
in a number of different apiaries. 

Prepare : 

Solution No. 1, 

Crystallized salicylic acid 1 oz, 
Pure alcohol, 8 oz. 

W^th this mixture prepare : 

Solution No. 2, for washing or sprinkling the combs with 
an atomizer, 20 drops of solution No. 1, mixed with 7 
ounces of tepid rain water, or 200 drops in a pint of water. 

Solution No. 5, to be used in the food of the bees, about 
220 drops of solution No. 1 in a quart of syrup or honey 
boiled with about a fifth of tepid water. To avoid the 
trouble of counting the drops every time, it is advisable to 
put them, the first time in a graded vial, or in a small bottle 
in which a mark can be made for the repeated measurement 



452 



DISEASES OF BEES. 



of the solution. The water can be measured in the same way. 
Describing the Hilbert process, Mr. Cowan, who has 
also succeeded in curing a number of cases, writes : 

794. " One of the simplest and most rapid ways of curing the 
disease is by Hilbert's fumigating process, as the fumes of salicy- 
lic acid have the power of penetrating everything in the hive and 
destroying all the germs of foul-brood. The apparatus used for this 
purpose is the fumigator improved by Mr. Ed.Bertrand, (fig. 187). 




Fig. 1S1. 
BERTRAND FUMIGATOR. 

It consists of a cylinder A, to which is hinged, at D, a cover B, 
having a nozzle at C. This is 5 inches by 1 \, so as to be easily in- 
serted between hive and floor board, and it is kept in position by 
the fastening E. A spirit lamp H, has the flame so regulated that 
the acid placed in the metal dish I, above it, is gently evaporated. 
The hive to be operated upon is not removed from its stand, but 
is raised up at the back off" its floor-board by means of blocks of 
wood, and wedges are inserted at the sides, so as to leave only 
space for the insertion of nozzle, C, of fumigator. With hives on 
legs, the floor-board can be lowered. Fifteen and a half grains of 
salicylic acid are then placed in the dish I, and the flame of the 
lamp so regulated that the acid is gently evaporated. Too much 
flame will cause it to boil over, and waste ; too little would not 
melt it, so that just the right amount is found out by experiment. 
The nozzle of the fumigator in operation is now inserted in the 



FOUL-BROOD. 453 

opening at the bottom, and the corners of the quilt turned up, so 
as to allow the vapor of the acid to circulate freely. The fumiga 
tions should be performed early in the morning, or in the evening, 
when all the bees are at home. The entrance of the hive need 
not be closed. Any portion of the hive not reached by the fumes 
of the acid, the alighting-board and ground, near the hive, should 
be washed or syringed with salicylic acid 1 oz , soda borax 1 oz , 
water 2 quarts, or solution No. 3. It would be much better if the 
frames could be transferred to a clean hive after fumigation, and 
the infected hive scalded and painted over with the same solution, 
and with this view I have adapted my hives for easy separation 
and purification. Many hives, however, cannot be taken to pieces 
so readily, therefore they must be disinfected on the spot as well 
as possible, by the expenditure of a little more of the solution. 
Each hive should be fumigated from four to six times, at intervals 
of six days. The bees must receive every other evening a quarter 
of a pint of syrup containing 30 to 50 drops of solution No. 1. A 
foul-broody hive should be fumigated b fore being opened, as few 
frames left as the bees can well occupy, and if possible, the bees 
should be forced to build fresh combs, and rapid brood-rearing 
encouraged." 

"All the hives in the Apiary should be fed with syrup contain- 
ing salicylic acid while the disease lasts. 

" The honey from the infected combs can be removed and boiled 
for a short time, and by adding salicylic acid to it, can be used as 
food for the bees. All combs should be fumigated before being 
stored away, and sprayed with spray diffuser, on both sides and 
round the edges before being used again, with solution No. 1. 

"All hives, floor-boards, frames, and utensils, used about an 
Apiary should be scalded and thoroughly cleansed when done 
with, and all woodwork painted over with the salicylic solution, 
to prevent the disease spreading any further. 

" If the treatment above given be adopted in time, it will effect 
a cure, but if the disease is neglected and allowed to assume the 
worst type, much more trouble will be experienced in its eradica- 
tion. Some advise destroying the hives, but I never found any 
necessity to do this, as salicylic acid is sufficient to destroy any 
germs of the disease which may have adhered to the hive." 
[British Bee-Keepers' Guide Book.) 

795. Mr. Cheshire, in turn, finding this process of evap- 
orating salicylic acid long and tedious, contrived a new 



454 DISEASES OF BEES. 

method in which he uses carbolic acid, otherwise called 
phenol, after the suggestion of an Irish Apiarist, Mr. R. 
Sproule. 

As bees strongly dislike carbolic acid, since it is used to 
frighten them (070), the quantity has to be very small, or 
they will not touch the food containing it. The dose used 
by Mr. Cheshire, in the food, is about one ounce for forty 
pounds of syrup, amounting to 1-G40th, but this proportion 
may be changed according to circumstances. When there 
is no honey in the fields, he says that the proportion may 
be reduced to l-750th. 

" The carbolic acid should be added to the syrup when the 
latter is cool and equally mixed by careful stirring." — (Cheshire. 
Page 565.) 

When the bees refused to touch the food thus prepared, 
Mr. Cheshire succeeded in compelling them to use it, by 
pouring it into the combs, in the cells immediately around 
and over the brood. He advises the use of one part of 
phenol in fifty parts of water, for spraying the infected 
combs that are removed from the bees, but in no case does 
he spray the inside of the brood- nest of the diseased col- 
ony with this solution. — {British Bee Journal, 1887, page 
397.) 

796. For our part, we should prefer the Bertrand-Cowan 
method of applying Hilbert's recipe, to all others. It is 
most likely, however, that either of these methods will be 
successful if the Apiarist is careful and perseverant, but if 
he neglects the minutest precautions, for instance, washing 
his hands in a solution of phenol or of salicylic acid, before 
going to some other hive, after handling a sick colony, 
or if lie does not apply a preventive treatment to all 
his colonies during and after the treatment of* the sick ones, 
he may retain the disease in his Apiary indefinitely, for if 
hut a few of the spores escape, they will soon spread the 
contagion again. 



FOUL-BROOD. 455 

797. This reminds our Senior of an incident that hap- 
pened in his 3 T ounger days, while he lived with his father, 
who was a physician. A laborer had come to the old doc- 
tor for an ointment to cure the **itch". He had caught 
this — now uncommon and ever disgraceful — contagious 
skin disease, while working as a harvest hand, in the coun- 
try. Directions were given him for using the ointment, 
and he was told that his wife should anoint with it also, as 
a preventive. But the woman, who did not have the dis- 
ease, refused to use it, and two weeks afterwards the man 
came back for more ointment. He was cured, but his wife 
had the itch in her turn. The doctor gave him some, and 
told him that he should use it too, or he might catch the 
disease again ; but he did not mind the warning, and two 
weeks later, he had to call for more. " Well," said the 
old doctor, " I hope that these two experiments will con- 
vince you of the necessity of a thorough treatment for both, 
with a disease that is transmitted so readily, by contact." 

The case is exactly the same with the bacillus. While 
we are treating one colony, a few spores may be transmit- 
ted to a neighboring hive, by the contact of a single bee, 
and the disease is spread, unknown to us, while we are con- 
gratulating ourselves, in the firm belief that we have eradi- 
cated it. 

798. The cure may be delayed, and may even fail alto- 
gether, if the queen is infected. Then the only resource is 
to kill her and give the colony another from a healthy hive. 

799. When an Apiarist finds out that foul-brood exists 
in his vicinity, his best plan is probably to feed his bees 
regularly on salicycated food. A lump of camphor, placed 
inside of the hive on the bottom-board, is advised by some. 
Salt (273), which improves the blood of all animals, by 
decreasing the number of white globules, shows its effects 
on the general health of all beings, and renders them more 



456 DISEASES OF BEES. 

capable of battling against Siuy disease, whether contagious 
or not. 

800. Foul-brood is transmitted from one hive to another 
— like Asiatic cholera among men, — by different means. 
Robbing (664) is probably one of the main helps to con- 
tamination, as the robber bees may take the bacillus home, 
among their hair, unawares. Working bees may even gather 
the scourge from some sweet-scented blossom contaminated 
by previous visitors. The transportation, or shipping, of 
bees, from one part of the country to another, is often a 
mean of spreading the disease, and some of our State legis- 
latures have made very stringent laws on the subject. 

Contagious diseases were once the scourge of the land. 
Who has not heard of the plague, the dread disease of the 
dark ages ? According to Chambers' Encyclopedia, the 
plague of 1665 destroyed seventy thousand people, in Lon- 
don alone. Earlier still, in 1348, according to Sismondi, 
the plague destroyed three-fifths of the entire population of 
Europe, extending even up into Iceland. It was during 
that terrible scourge that the city of Florence lost over one 
hundred thousand people. If those dreaded diseases are 
now but little feared, we owe it to scientific discoveries. 
The microscope has shown that nearly all contagious dis- 
eases, which men or animals are subject to, are caused by 
living organisms, and medical science now teaches how they 
may be avoided by inoculation, or other means. More dis- 
coveries are daily made, and we can hope that the day is 
not far, when the advancement of science will have put an 
end to all these ills, and the bacillus alvei will be a thing 
of the past. 

801. Aside from foul- brood, accidents may cause the 
brood to die, and even to rot in the cells, without special 
damage to the bees. Sudden an 1 cold weather, in a promis- 
ing Spring, when the bees have been spreading their brood, 
and are compelled to leave a part of it uncovered ; the ne- 



FOUL-BROOD. 457 

gleet of the Apiarist, or his mismanagement, in placing 
back the brood, — after an inspection, — out of the reach 
of the cluster ; or even the suffocation of a colony by heat 
(367), or by close confinement (368), may cause the 
death of the brood. 

These accidents have none of the malignance of foul- 
brood, and nothing need be done in such occurrences be- 
sides removing the dead brood, and burying it carefully. 



458 ENEMIES OF BEES. 

CHAPTER XIX. 

Enemies of Bees. 

802. The Bee-Moth (Tinea mellonella) is mentioned by 
Aristotle, Virgil, Columella and other ancient authors, as 
one of the most formidable enemies of the honey-bee. Even 
in the first part of this century, the bee-writers, almost 
without exception, regarded it as the plague of their Apia- 
ries. 




Fig. 183. 
BEE-MOTH. 

Eggs, natural size and magnified, larva and moths. 

Swammerdam speaks of two species of the bee-moth 
(called in his time the "bee-ivolf"'), one much larger than 
the other. Linmeus and Reaumur also describe two kinds 
— Tinea cereana and Tinea mellonella.* Most writers sup- 
posed the former to be the male, and the latter the female 
of the same species. The following description is abridged 
from Dr. Harris' Report on the Insects of Massachusetts : 

803. "Very few of the Tinece exceed or even equal it in size. 
In its adult state it is a winged moth, or miller, measuring, from 
the head to the tip of the closed wings, from live-eighths to three- 
quarters of an inch in length, and its wings expand from one 
inch and one-tenth to one inch and four-tenths. The fore-wings 

* Scientists do not agree exactly as to these species, nor their names, calling 
them, galleria cereana, galleria alvearia, tinea cerella, &c. 



THE BEE-MOTH. 459 

shut together flatly on the top of the back, slope steeply down- 
wards at the sides, and are turned up at the end somewhat like 
the tail of a fowl. The female is much larger than the male, and 
much darker-colored. There are two broods of these insects in 
the course of the year.* Some winged moths of the first brood 
begin to appear towards the end of April or early in May — ear- 
lier or later, according to climate and season. Those of the 
second brood are more abundant in August; but some maybe 
found between these periods, and even much later." 

No writer with whom we are acquainted has given such an 
exact description of the differences between the sexes, that 
they can always be readily distinguished. The wood-cuts 
of the moths, larvae, and cocoons, which we present to our 
readers, were drawn from nature, by Mr. M. M. Ticlcl, of 
Boston, Mass., and engraved by Mr. D. T. Smith, of the 
^p^^i^jp same city. Mr. Tidd seems first to have 

noticed that the snout or palpus of the fe- 
male, projects so as to resemble a beak, 
Fig. 189.— Female. while that of the male is very short. 
While some males are larger than some females, and 
some females much lighter-colored than 
the average of males, and occasionally 
some males as dark as the darkest females, 
the peculiarity of the snout of the female is 
so marked, that she may always be distin- 
guished at a glance. 

804. These insects are seldom seen on the wing, unless 
started from their lurking places about the hives, until to- 
wards dark. On cloudy days, however, the female may be 
noticed endeavoring, before sunset, to gain entrance into 
the hives. 

44 if disturbed in the daytime," says Dr. Harris, 44 they open 
their wings a little, and spring or glide swiftly away, so that it is 
very difficult to seize or hold them." 

*Prof. Cook is of opinion (Guide, page 315) that there may be three broods 
in a year and we believe he is correct. We have seen them most numerous in 
hot October weather. 




460 ENEMIES OF BEES. 

They are surprisingly agile, both on foot and on the 
wing, the motion of a bee being very slow, in comparison. 
"They are," says Reaumur, "the most* nimble-footed 
creatures that I know." 

In the evening, they take wing, when the bees are at rest, 
and hover around the hive till, having found the door, they 
go in and lay their eggs. 

" It is curious," says Huber, ** to observe how artfully the moth 
knows how to profit by the disadvantage of the bees, which 
require much light for seeing objects, and the precautions 
taken by the latter in reconnoitering and expelling so dangerous 
an enemy." 

" Those that are prevented from getting within the hive, lay 
their eggs in the cracks on the outside ; and the little worm-like 
caterpillars hatched therefrom, easily creep into the hive through 
the cracks, or gnaw a passage for themselves under the edges of 
it." —Dr. Harris. 

One afternoon, about twent}^-five years ago, our Senior 
saw a female bee-moth on the front of an eke hive (278), 
and noticed that she was laying in the crack, between two 
ekes, through which the propolis could be seen ; the 
ekes being rabetted to receive the comb-bars, their thick- 
ness there was reduced to about three-eighths of an inch. 

The moth laid about ten eggs, then walked about, seem- 
ing satisfied with her work, and came back to lay about the 
same number, repeating the manoeuver several times. 

This shows that moths ma}^ lay eggs in the hive from the 
outside, if propolis is a food for their just-hatched larva?. 
One of our objects, in preserving the strip around the hive 
to support the cap (fig. 68), and in incasing the bottom 
(342), was to hinder the moth. 

805. •' As soon as hatched, the worm encloses itself in a case 
of white silk, which it spins around its body; at first it is like a 
mere thread, but gradually increases in size, and, during its 
growth, feeds upon the cells around it, for which purpose it has 
only to put forth its head, and find its wants supplied. It de- 



THE BEE-MOTH. 461 

vours its food with great avidity, and, consequently, increases so 
much in bulk, that its gallery soon becomes too short and narrow, 
and the creature is obliged to thrust itself forward and lengthen 
the gallery, as well to obtain more room as to procure an addi- 
tional supply of food. Its augmented size exposing it to attacks 
from surrounding foes, the wary insect fortifies its new abode with 
additional strength and thickness, by blending with the filaments 
of its silken covering a mixture of wax and its own excrement, 
for the external barrier of a new gallery,* the interior and parti- 




ng. 191. 
GALLERY OF MOTH WORM. 

tions of which are lined with a smooth surface of white silk, which 
admits the occasional movements of the insects, without injury to 
its delicate texture. 

" In performing these operations, the insect might be expected 
to meet with opposition from the bees, and to be gradually 
rendered more assailable as it advanced in age. It never, how- 
ever, exposes any part but its head and neck, both of which are 
covered with stout helmets, or scales, impenetrable to the sting 
of a bee, as is the composition of the galleries that surround it."— 
Bevan. 

806. The worm is here given of full size, and with all its 






Fig: 192. 
THE WORMS. 

peculiarities. The scaly head is shown in one of the 
worms; while the three pairs of claw-like forelegs, and 

* This representation of the weh, or gallery of the worm, was copied from 
Swammerdam . 



462 ENEMIES OF BEES. 

the five pairs of hind ones, are delineated. The tail is also 
furnished with two of these legs. The breathing holes are 
seen on the back. 

807. Wax is the chief food of these worms, but as Dr. 
Donkoff says : "Larvae fed exclusively on pure wax will 
die, wax being a non-nitrogenous (221) substance, and 
not furnishing the aliment required for their perfect devel- 
opment ;" and his statement agrees with the fact that their 
larvae prefer the brood-combs, which are lined with the skins 
cast away by the bee-larvae (167), and which, in conse- 
quence, are more liable to be devoured than the new ones. 
In fact, they eat pollen and propolis, and while making their 
cocoons, they even seem to relish wood} 7 fibre, for the} 7 
often eat into the wood of the frames or of the hives in which 
they are allowed to propagate, while comb-foundation re- 
mains almost untouched by them. 

808. When obliged to steal their living among a strong 
colony of bees, they seldom fare well enough to reach the 
size which they attain when rioting at pleasure among the full 
combs of a discouraged population. In about three weeks, 
the larvae stop eating, and seek a suitable place for encas- 
ing themselves in their silky shroud. In hives where they 
reign unmolested, almost any place will answer their pur- 
pose, and the} 7 often pile their cocoons upon one another, 
or join them together in long rows. They sometimes oc- 
cupy the empty combs, so that their cocoons resemble the 
capping of the honey-cells. In Fig. 193, Mr. Tidd has 
given a drawing, accurate in size and form, of a curious 
instance of this kind. The black spots, resembling grains 
of gunpowder, are the excrements of the worms. 

If the colony is strong, the worm runs a dangerous gaunt- 
let, as it passes, in search of some crevice, through the 
ranks of its enraged foes. Its motions, however, are ex- 
ceedingly quick, and it is full of cunning devices, being 
able to crawl backwards, to twist round on itself, to curl up 



THE BEE-MOTH. 



463 



almost into a knot, and to flatten itself out like a pancake. 
If obliged to leave the hive, it gets under some board or 
concealed crack, spins its cocoon, and patiently awaits its 
transformation. 




Fig. 193. 
COCOONS SPUN BY LARV.E OF BEE-MOTHS. 

809. The time required for the larvae to break forth into 
winged insects, varies with the temperature to which they 
are exposed, and the season of the year when they spin 
their cocoons. We have known them to spin and hatch in 



464 ENEMTES OF BEES. 

ten or eleven clays ; and they often spin so late in the Fall, 
as not to emerge until the ensuing Spring. 

810. In Northern latitudes where the thermometer* 
ranges for da}^s and weeks below 10° the bee-moth-worm 
can winter only in the hive near the bee-clnster. It isa 
fact worth}' of notice that Apiaries that are wintered in the 
cellar are more annoyed by the moth during the following 
Summer than those that are wintered out of doors, because 
none of the larvae of the moth perish. 

Dr. Donhoff says that the larvse become motionless at a 
temperature of 38* to 40°, and entirely torpid at a lower 
temperature. A number, which he left all Winter in his 
summer-house, revived in the Spring, and passed through 
their natural changes. This was in Germany where the 
Winters are milder than in our Northern and Middle 
States. 

k 'If, when the thermometer stood at 10°, I dissected a chrysalis, 
it was not frozen, but congealed immediately afterwards. This 
shows that, at so low a temperature, the vital force is sufficient to 
resist frost. In the hive, the chrysalids and larv?e, in various 
stages of development, pass the Winter in a state of torpor, in cor- 
ners and crevices, and among the waste on the bottom-boards. In 
March or April, they revive, and the bees of strong colonies com- 
mence operations for dislodging them." — Donhoff. 

Some larvae which Mr. Langstroth exposed to a tempera- 
ture of 6° below zero, froze solid, and never revived. Others, 
after remaining for eight hours in a temperature of about 
12 Q , seemed, after reviving, to remain for weeks in a crippled 
condition. 

" The eggs of the bee-moth are perfectly round, and very small, 
being only about one-eighth of a line in diameter. In the ducts of 
the ovarium, they are ranged together in the form of a rosary. 
They are not developed consecutively, like those of the queen bee, 
but are found in the ducts, fully and perfectly formed, a few days 
after the female moth emerges from the cocoon. She deposits them, 
usually, in little clusters on the combs. If we wish to witness the 



THE BEE-MOTH. 



465 



discharge of the eggs, it is only necessary to seize a female moth, 
two or three daj^s old, with finger and thumb, by the head — she 
will instantly protrude her ovipositor, and the eggs may then be 
distinctly seen passing along through the semi-transparent duct. 



-# ^ 







aaaoEL. 



Fig. 194. 
WEBS AND REMNANTS OF COMBS DESTROYED BY MOTHS. 



" Last Summer I reared a bee-moth larva in a small box It 
spun a cocoon, from which issued a female moth. Holding her by 
the head, I allowed her to deposit eggs on a piece of honey-comb. 
Three weeks afterwards, I examined the comb, and found on it 
some web and two larvae. The eggs were all shrivelled and dried 
30 



466 ENEMIES OF BEES. 

up, except a few which were perforated, and from which, I sup- 
pose, the larvae emerged. This appears to be a case of true par- 
thenogenesis in the bee-moth." — Translated from Dr. Doxhoff 
by S. Wagner. 

811. In Fig. 194, Mr. Tidd has faithfully delineated, 
and Mr. Smith skillfully engraved, the black mass of tan- 
gled webs, cocoons, excrements, and perforated combs, which 
may be found in a hive where the worms have completed 
their work of destruction. 

The entrance of a moth into a hive and the ravages com- 
mitted by her progeny, forcibly illustrate the havoc which 
vice often makes when admitted to prey unchecked on the 
precious treasures of the human heart. Only some tiny 
eggs are deposited by the insidious moth, which give birth 
to very innocent-looking worms ; but let them once get the 
control, and the fragrance* of the honied dome is soon cor- 
rupted, the hum of happy industry stilled, and eve^t'ing 
useful and beautiful ruthlessly destroyed. 

As a feeble colony is often unable to cover all its combs, 
the outside ones may become filled with the eggs of the 
moth. The discouraged aspect of the bees soon indicates 
that there is trouble of some kind within, and the bottom- 
board will be covered with pieces of bee-bread mixed with 
the excrement of the worms. 

If a feeble colony cannot be strengthened so as to protect its 
empty combs, the careful bee-keeper will take them away until 
the bees are numerous enough to need them. 

812. Combs having no brood, from dead colonies, or 
surplus combs, with or without honey, should be smoked 
with the fumes of burning sulphur, to kill the eggs or 
worms of the moth, when kept from the bees in the month; 
of June, July, August, and September. The box, hive, 
or room in which they are kept should be tightly closed 
to prevent the gas from escaping till it has done its work. 

* The odor of the moth and larvse is very offensive. 



THE BEE-MOTH. 467 

In smoking comb-honey in a room, the sulphur may be 
placed on hot coals in a dish, and care should be taken 
not to use too much of it, as the gas has the effect of turn- 
ing the propolis to a greenish color, quite damaging to the 
looks of the beautiful sections. Enough smoke to kill the 
flies, in a room, will be found sufficient. Dry combs kept 
over Winter in a well closed room without a fire, are not in 
danger of the moth the following Summer, unless they are 
in some manner exposed. Combs, in which there have been 
moths, should be examined occasionally, to be smoked again 
if any worms are found. 

A bee-keeper of Switzerland, Mr. Castellaz, keeps his 
combs in a closed box, in which he places some lumps of 
camphor. He says that bees accept these combs, even when 
impregnated with the odor of camphor. 

In Italy where the moths are very troublesome, on account 
of the mildness of the Winters, some bee-keepers pile 
their combs flat in a box in which they have put about one 
inch of fine dry sand ; all the cells of every layer of comb 
are filled with sand, and the last one is entirely covered with 
it. The sand is shaken out, before the combs are melted 
or returned to the bees. 

813. Italian bees, unless exceedingly weak and queenless, 
(182), will defend a large number of combs against moths. 
One of our neighbors, who had, occasionally, helped us in 
the Apiary, after witnessing our success in bee culture, 
bought a colony of Italian bees and divided (470) it into 
three swarms, without regard to the scantiness of the crop. 
His swarms having dwindled to naught, he returned their 
combs to the impoverished colony, whose population was 
unable to cover more than two or three combs. But the 
returned combs had not been protected against moths, 
which hatched so numerous that our neighbor, surprised to 
see about as many moths as bees going out of the hive, 
came to us for advice. On opening the hive, we found 



468 ENEMIES OY BEES. 

three combs of brood crowded with bees, and seven others 
that were a perfect mass of webs, spotted with excrements. 
The bees were all on their combs and the moths on theirs ; 
not one worm conld be found on either of the three combs, 
protected by the Italians. Both populations, the one of 
bees, the other of moths, seemed to dwell harmoniou sly 
near each other. 

814. The most fruitful cause of the ravages of the moth 
still remains to be described. If a colony becomes hope- 
lessly queenless (510), it must, unless otherwise destroyed, 
inevitably fall a prey to the bee-moth. By watching, in glass 
hives, the proceedings of colonies purposely made queen- 
less, we have ascertained that they make little or no resist- 
ance to her entrance, and allow her to lay her eggs where 
she pleases. The worms, after hatching, appear to have 
their own way, and are even more at home than the dispir- 
ited bees. 

How worthless, then, to a hopelessly queenless colony, 
are all the traps and other devices which, formerly, have 
been so much relied upon. Any passage which admits a 
bee is large enough for the moth, and if a single female 
enters such a hive, she may lay eggs enough to destroy it, 
however strong. Under a low estimate, she would la} 7 , at 
least, two hundred eggs in the hive, and the second genera- 
tion will count by thousands, while those of the third will 
exceed a million. 

The fact that hopelessly queenless stocks do not oppose 
any effectual resistance to the moths or worms, has for a 
long time been well known to the Germans. Mr. Wagner 
informed us ; 'that their best treatises, for many years, 
speak of this as a settled fact, so that it has become an 
axiom that, if a colony is overpowered b}' robber-bees, its 
owner is not entitled to compensation, as it was, in all like- 
lihood, queenless, and would certainly have been destroyed by 
the moth." 



THE BEE-MOTH. 469 

In the Ohio Cultivator for 1849, page 185, Micajah T. 
Johnson says: — " One thing is certain — if bees, from any 
cause, should lose their queen, and not have the means in 
their power of raising another, the miller and the worms 
soon take possession. I believe no hive is destroyed by worms 
while an efficient queen remains in it." 

This seems to be the earliest published notice of this im- 
portant fact by any American observer. 

It is certain that a queenless hive seldom maintains a 
guard at the entrance after night, and does not fill the air 
with the pleasant voice of happy industry. Even to our 
dull ears, the difference between the hum of a prosperous 
hive and the unhappy note of a despairing one is often 
sufficiently obvious ; may it not be even more so to the 
acute senses of the provident mother-moth? 

Her unerring sagacity resembles the instinct by which 
birds that prey upon carrion, single out from the herd a 
diseased animal, hovering over its head with their dismal 
croakings, or sitting in ill-omened flocks on the surround- 
ing trees, watching it as its life ebbs away, and snapping 
their blood-thirsty beaks, impatient to tear out its eyes, 
just glazing in death, and banquet on its flesh, still warm 
with the blood of life. Let any fatal accident befall an 
animal, and how soon will you see them, — 

u First a speck and then a Vulture," 

speeding, from all quarters of the heavens, on their eager 
flight to their destined prey, when only a short time before 
not one could be perceived. 

When a colony becomes hopelessly queenless, even should 
the bees retain their wonted zeal in gathering stores and 
defending themselves against the moth, they must as cer- 
tainly perish as a carcass must decay, even if it is not 
assailed by filthy flies and ravenous worms. Occasion- 
ally, after the death of the bees, large stores of honey are 



470 ENEMIES OF BEES. 

found in their hives. Such instances, however, are rare ; for 
a motherless hive is almost always assaulted by stronger 
colonies, which, seeming to have an instinctive knowledge 
of its orphanage, hasten to take possession of its spoils ; 
or, if it escape the Scylla of these pitiless plunderers, it is 
dashed upon a more merciless Charybdis, when the mis- 
creant moths find cut its destitution. 

815. The introduction of movable-frame hives and Ita- 
lian bees, with the new system of management, has done 
away with the fear of, the moth. It is no longer common 
to hear bee-keepers speak of having "good luck" or "bad 
luck" with their bees; as bees are now managed, success 
or failure never depends on what is called " luck." 

To one acquainted with the habits of the moth, the bee- 
keeper ivho is constantly lamenting its ravages, seems almost 
as much deluded as a farmer would be, who, after searching 
diligently for his coiv, and finding her nearly devoured by 
carrion ivorms, should denounce these worthy scavengers as 
the primary cause of her untimely end. 

The bee-moth has, for thousands of 3-ears, supported 
itself on the labors of the bee, and there is no reason to 
suppose that it will ever become exterminated. In a state 
of nature, a queenless hive, or one whose inmates have 
died, being of no further account, the mission of the moth 
is to gather up its fragments that nothing may be lost. 

From these remarks, the bee-keeper will see the means 
on which he must rely, to protect his hives from the 
moth. Knowing that strong colonies which have a fertile 
queen, can take care of themselves in almost any kind of 
hive, he should do all he can to keep them in this condition. 
They will thus do more to defend themselves than if he de- 
voted the whole of his time to fighting the moth.* 

♦Inexperienced bee-keepers, "who imagiue that a colony is nearly ruined 
when they find a few worms, should remember that almost eveiy colony 



THE BEE-MOTH. 471 

It is hardly necessary, after the preceding remarks, to 
say much upon the various contrivances to which some re- 
sorted as a safeguard against the bee-moth. The idea that 
gauze- wire doors, to be shut at dusk and opened again at 
morning, can exclude the moth, will not weigh much with 
those who have seen them on the wing, in dull weather, long 
before the bees have ceased their work. Even if they could 
be excluded by such a contrivance, it would require, on the 
part of those using it, a regularity almost akin to that of 
the heavenly bodies. 

An ingenious device has been invented for dispensing 
with such close supervision, by governing the entrances of 
all the hives by a long lever-like hen-roost, so that they 
might be regularly closed by the crowing and cackling tribe 
when they go to rest at night, and opened again when they 
fly from their perch to greet the merry morn. Alas ! that 
so much skill should have been all in vain ! Some chickens 
are sleepy, and wish to retire before the bees have com- 
pleted their work, while others, from ill-health or laziness, 
have no taste for early rising, and sit moping on their 
roost, long after the cheerful sun has purpled the glowing 
East. Even if this device could entirely exclude the moth, 
it could not save a colony which has lost its queen. The 
truth is, that such contrivances are equivalent to the lock 
put upon the stable door after the horse has been stolen ; or, 
to attempts to banish the chill of death by warm covering, 
or artificial heat. 

The prudent bee-keeper, remembering that "prevention 
is better than cure, " will take pains to destroy the larvae of 



(especially black bees) however strong or healthy, has some of these enemies 
lurking about its premises . 

The late Mr. M. Quinby, of New York, whose common-sense treatise 
on Bee-keeping, lately revised by his son-in-law, L. C. Root, will richly repay 
perusal, is of opinion that some of the imperfect bees carried out of the hive 
in the Spring, have been destroyed by the worms, which have made their way 
through the comb . 



472 ENEMIES OF BEES. 

the moth as early in the season as he can, while swarming 
his bees. The destruction of a single female worm may 
thus be more effectual than the slaughter of hundreds at a 
later period. 

816. Mice. It seems almost incredible that such puny 
animals as mice should venture to invade a hive of Lees ; 
and they often slip in when cold compels the bees to retreat 
from the entrance. Having once gained admission, they 
build a warm nest in their comfortable abode, eat up the 
honey and such bees as are too much chilled to offer resis- 
tance,* and fill the premises with such a stench, that the bees, 
on the arrival of warm weather, often abandon their polluted 
home. The entrance should never be made deep enough to 
allow mice to pass (348). 

817. Birds. Very few birds are fond of bees. The 
King-bird (Tyrannus musicapa), which devours them by 
scores, is said — when he can have his choice — to eat only the 
drones ; but as he catches bees on the blossoms — which are 
never frequented by these fat and lazy gentlemen — the 
industrious workers must often fall a prey to his fatal snap. 
There is good reason to suspect that this gourmand can 
distinguish between an empty bee in search of food, and 
one which, returning laden to its fragrant home, is in excel- 
lent condition to glide — already sweetened — down his 
voracious maw. 

818. The bee-keepers of England complain of the spar- 
rows, which they accuse of eating bees. If these birds 
add this mischief to so man} 7 others of which the}' are guilty, 
the bee-keepers should find some means of getting rid of 
them. In the Vosges (France) most of the farmers suspend 
earthen pots to the walls of their barns in which the spar- 
rows make their nests. These jug-shape pots are examined 

*In eating bees, the mice eat the head and corselet, but not the abdomen, 
probably because of the smell of the poison sack. 



BIRDS. 473 

every week and the young birds are killed as soon as they 
are ready to fly out, and are put into the frying-pan. We 
have seen as many as five or six dozen pots on the same 
wall, nearly all filled with nests, for sparrows raise many 
broods every year. 

In Italy the consumption of these birds is carried on, on a 
large scale. Not only are the churches riddled with thous- 
ands of holes, in which the sparrows make their nests, but 
there are, at the road crossings, high square towers, which 
are built for this purpose. An overseer has them locked ; 
He climbs inside, and clips the wings of the young, to com- 
pel them to stay till they are full grown. 

During the Franco-Italian war against Austria, the French 
soldiers bought the young sparrows, which they found 
delicious eating. If the sparrows destroy our bees, can we 
not destroy them? It is better to eat than to be eaten! 

If — as in the olden time of fables — birds could be moved 
by human language, it would be worth while to post up, in 
the vicinity of our Apiaries, the old Greek poet's address to 
the swallow: 

" Attic maiden, honey fed, 

Chirping warbler, bears't away 
Thou the busy buzzing bee, 

To thy callow brood a prey ? 
Warbler, thou a warbler seize ? 

Winged, one with lovely wings ? 
Guest thyself, by Summer brought, 

Yellow guests whom Summer brings? 
Wilt not quickly let it drop ? 

'Tis not fair; indeed, 'tis wrong, 
That the ceaseless warbler should 
Die by mouth of ceaseless song. " 

819. No Apiarist ought ever to encourage the destruction 
of any birds, except the too-plentiful sparrows, because of 
their fondness for bees. Unless we can check the custom 
of destroying, on any pretense, our insectivorous birds, we 



474 ENEMIES OF BEES. 

shall soon, not only be deprived of their serial melod}- 
among the leafy branches, but shall lament, more and more, 
the increase of insects from whose ravages nothing but 
these birds can protect us. Let those who can enj'03^ no 
music made by these winged choristers of the skies, except 
that of their agonizing screams as they fall before their 
well aimed weapons, and nutter out their innocent lives be- 
fore their heartless gaze, drive away, as far as they please 
from their cruel premises, all the little birds that they can- 
not destroy, and they will, eventually, reap the fruits of 
their folly, when the caterpillars weave their destroying 
webs over their leafless trees, and insects of all kinds riot 
in glee on their blasted harvests. 

820. Tame chickens eat drones, but not workers. Once 
we noticed a rooster seemingly eating bees at the entrance 
of a hive. The bees were then killing their drones (192). 
On approaching the hive, we saw him carefully pick 
out a drone from among the bees, shake off a worker -bee 
which had clung to him and swallow the drone. Young 
drones can be fed to chickens, who soon learn to eat them 
greedily, but if a worker bee is found among them they will 
shake their heads at her, with a knowing look of disgust. 
Young ducks, if insufficiently fed, will eat bees and are 
often killed by being stung while swallowing them. 

821. Other enemies. — The toad is a well-known devourer 
of bees. Sitting, towards evening, under a hive, he will 
sweep into his mouth, with his swiftly-darting tongue, many 
a late returning bee, as it falls, heavily laden, to the ground ; 
but as he is also a diligent consumer of various injurious 
insects, he can plead equal immunity with the insectivorous 
birds. 

It may seem amazing that birds and toads can swallow 
bees without being stung to death. They seldom, however, 
meddle with any, except those returning fully laden to their 
hives, or such as, being awa}^ from home, are indisposed to 



BEARS BEE-LTCE. 475 

resent an injur}- . As they are usually swallowed without 
being crushed, they do not instinctively thrust out their 
stings, and before they can recover from their surprise, 
they are safely entombed. 

822. Bears are exceedingly fond of honey ; and in coun- 
tries where they abound, great precautions are needed to 
prevent them from destroying the hives. 

In that quaint but admirably common-sense work, entitled, 
" The Feminine Monarchies written out of Experience, by 
Charles Butler; printed in the year 1609 ," we have an 
amusing adventure, related by a Muscovite ambassador to 
Rome : 

" A neighbor of mine," saith he, "in searching in the woods 
for honey, slipped down into a great hollow tree, and there sunk 
into a lake of honey up to the breast; where — when he had stuck 
fast two days calling and crying out in vain for help, because 
nobody in the meanwhile came nigh that solitary place — at 
length, when he was out of all hope of life, he was strangely 
delivered by the means of a great bear, which, coming hither 
about the same business that he did, and smelling the honey, 
stirred with his striving, clambered up to the top of the tree, 
and then began to lower himself down, backwards, into it. The 
man bethinking himself, and knowing that the worst was but 
death, which in that place he was sure of, beclipt the bear fast 
with both hands about the loins, and, withal, made an outcry as 
loud as he could. The bear being thus suddenly affrighted, 
what with the handling and what with the noise, made up again 
with all speed possible. The man held, and the bear pulled, 
until, with main force, he had drawn him out of the mire ; and 
then, being let go, away he trots, more afeard than hurt, leaving 
the smeared swain in a joyful fear." 

823. The braula cceca or bee-louse, exists in Italy and 
other warm countries. Dr. Dubini has seen queens so com- 
pletely covered with them, that only their legs could be seen. 
These lice, whose second name, coeca, means blind, have 
been often found by us on imported queens on their arrival. 
They are so large that they can easily be taken off the 



47ti ENEMIES OF BEES. 

queen and killed. It appears that they can only propagate 
in warm countries, for they exist in the South of Europe 
and are unknown either in Russia, or in North America. 

824. Small ants often make their nests about hives, to 
have the benefit of their warmth. They are annoying to the 
Apiarist, but neither molest the bees nor are molested by 
them. 

Our limits forbid us to to speak of wasps, hornets, mille- 
pedes (or wood-lice), spiders, libellulas and other enemies 
of bees. These lesser enemies are detailed at length and 
in a scientific manner, with engravings, in the work of 
Prof. Cook, "The Bee-Keeper's Guide," to which we refer 
the lovers of entomological study. If the Apiarist keeps 
his colonies strong, they will usually be their own best 
protectors, for, unless they are guarded by thousands ready 
to die in their defense, they are ever liable to fall a prey to 
some of their many enemies, who are all agreed on this one 
point, at least — that stolen hone}^ is much sweeter than the 
slow accumulations of patient industry. 



MARKETING HONEY. 477 

CHAPTER XX. 
Honey Handling. 

Marketing Honey. 

825. The quality of honey depends very little, if at all, 
upon the secretions of the bees ; and hence, apple blossom, 
white clover, buckwheat, and other varieties of honey, have 
each their peculiar flavor, and color. The difference between 
the honey of one blossom, and that of another, is so great, 
that persons unacquainted with this diversity, when tasting 
honey different from that to which they are accustomed, 
imagine that either the one or the other is adulterated. 

The whitest * and best flavored honey produced in this 
country, is that from white clover blossoms (712). Bass- 
wood honey, if unmixed with any other grade, is too strong 
in taste, but a slight quantity of it in clover honey makes a 
de'icious dish. Both these grades, being very white, sell 
more readily than any other, in the comb (719). 

Smart-weed honey, — which should properly be called 
knot-weed or Persicaria honey, — is of a pale yellow color 
and very fine in flavor. Asters produce honey nearly as 
white as clover. Different grades of fall-honey, from Span- 
ish needle^, golden-rod, iron-weed, etc., are of a yellow 
color, and strong in taste. Buckwheat honey is dark ; bone- 
set honey and honey dew are the ugliest and poorest in 
quality, looking almost like molasses. 

Some kinds of honey are bitter, and others very unwhole- 

* The honey of Hymettus, which has been so celebrated from the most 
ancient times, is of a fair golden color. The lightest-colored honey is by no 
means always the best. 



478 



HONEY HANDLING. 



some, being gathered from poisonous flowers. A Mandin- 
go African informed a lady of our acquaintance that his 
countrymen eat none that is unsealed until it has been boiled. 
The noxious properties of honey gathered from poisonous 
flowers would seem to be mostly evaporated before it is 
sealed over by the bees. Heating, however, expels them 
still more effectually, for some persons cannot eat even the 
best, when raw, with impunity. Well ripened honey is 
more wholesome than that freshly gathered by the bees. 
When it is taken from the bees, it should be put where it 
will be safe from all intruders. The little red and the large 
black ant are extravagantly fond of it, and will not only 
carry off large quantities if within their reach, but many of 
them will drown in it, spoil its appearance, and render it 
unfit for use. 




Fig. 195. 
TWO-TIER HONEY CRATE. 



826. Comb honey, in sections (721), put up in crates 
of 12, 16, 24, or 40 sections, with glass on the side, sells 
most readily ; and were it not for the greater cost of produc- 
tion, and the difficulty of safe transportation, this kind 
would be raised exclusively. One objection to it, by large 
producers, is that it cannot always be kept in good shape, 
from one year to another, owing to its tendency to "sweat." 

Sweating takes place in comb-honey which has been sealed 



MARKETING HONEY. 479 

by the bees before ib was fully ripened or evaporated 
(744), during a plentiful honey harvest. The changes of 
temperature in Spring and Summer cause a certain amount 
of fermentation in it, exactly as in the housekeepers' sealed 
preserves, when not sufficiently heated or sweetened. The 
result is a bursting of the cappings, by the pressure of the 
expanding honey, which runs out and over the comb and 
renders it unsalable. The same expansion sometimes takes 
place in granulated extracted honey accompanied by a slight 
fermentation. 

827. It is also held, by some leading Apiarists, that the 
cells, although sealed are not moisture-proof, and that comb- 
honey gathers water from the air, till it overfills the cell 
and escapes through its pores. For this reason they keep 
their comb-honey in a ivarm dry room. This is a good tiling 
to do in every case. Honey is hygrometric, and whenever 
exposed, gathers moisture rapidly, so that when kept in 
a damp place, a few unsealed or damaged cells very readily 
overflow, with watery honey, that daubs everything. There- 
fore, whether we believe that the sealed cells are air-tight 
or not (262), we should keep our honey in a dry place at 
all times. 

To prevent the leaking honey in sections from running 
out of a crate and daubing other boxes, a sheet of strong 
manila paper should be placed at the bottom of each case, 
with the edges folded up slightly, say half an inch. 

" The cases for shipping and retailing honey, should be light, 
and glazed on one or both sides. Those holding but one tier are 
best. The sections should rest on narrow strips of wood J- inch 
thick, tacked to the bottom of the case over a sheet of manila 
paper. This is to preserve the boxes from being daubed, in case 
the honey drips. 

" These cases should be in readiness before the honey is ready 
to be taken off. " — (Oliver Foster). 

828. " Glazed sections " — one glass on each side of 
each section — have been largely sold in the East ; but this 



480 HONEY HANDLING. 

niode of putting up honey, being very expensive, will only 
do for fancy trade. The producer can best tell what his 
trade requires. 

When shipping comb-honey to the large cities, Mr. 
Hutchinson, who is one of the successful comb-honey 
producers, wraps each crate separately in paper, to pro- 
tect it against dirt, dust, or coal-smoke, along the way. 
By this method his crates arrive on the market, as fresh 
and neat-looking on the outside, as when first put up. 

As the careful handling of comb-honey during shipment 
is very important, it is best to mark each case with a large 
label or a stencil, bearing the words : 

HONEY IN GLASS. Handle with Care. 

Very small lots ought never to be sent by rail, at least until 
we get better railroad regulations, concerning the handling 
of goods in transit, than we have at present. 

829. The barrels that we use for extracted hone}' are oak 
barrels, which have contained alcohol. They are gummed 
inside, with some composition, to prevent the alcohol from 
soaking through the wood, and this gum, or glue, prevents 
the leakage of honey. Whisky barrels are often unfit to 
contain hone}', for they are usually charred on the inside, 
and motes of charcoal fall into the honey and spoil its 
appearance. We keep our empty barrels in a dry place. 
As soon as filled, the} T are bunged and rolled into a cool 
and dry cellar, where they remain until the honey selling 
season, which begins in September, or October. Any dry 
room will do, when a dr} T cellar is not at hand, but a cellar 
has a more even temperature when cold weather comes. 

Some Apiarists use cheap syrup barrels, made of soft wood, 
which are said to leak less than oak barrels. Messrs. New- 
man of Chicago have, for years, manufactured soft wood 
hone} T kegs, which have proved satisfactory to many of our 
friends, as they are more easily handled than larger barrels. 



Plate 15. 




A. J. COOK, 

Professor of Entomology at the Michigan Agricultural College ; 
Author of " The Bee-keepers' Guide" 



This writer is mentioned, pages 6, 10, 37, 51, 91, 140, 254, 459, 476. 



MARKETING HONEY. 481 

They will do very well when the honey is to be sold at 
wholesale, as the barrel is usually lost by the shipper ; but 
we have an objection to them for our own use. We gen- 
erally have to take the honey out of them after it is granu- 
lated, to put it up for retail trade; and the cheap barrels are 
so easily damaged, by taking the head out, that they cannot 
be used more than one or two seasons, while good iron- 
bound oak barrels will last for years, and will never leak, if 
managed properly. To take the head out, it should be 
marked, with a chisel, so as to replace it afterwards exactly 
in the same position. A strong gimlet is screwed into the 
middle of it, for a handle. After the hoops have been 
chased off, the head can be pulled out readily, and it is 
replaced in the same manner, when the barrel is empty. 

If the barrels are damp, when the honey is put in, and 
are removed to a dry place afterwards, they wili soon leak ; 
for honey does not keep the wood from drying and shrink- 
ing. Honey barrels, then, should not be treated in the 
same way as wine or cider barrels ; and swelling them, with 
steam, or hot water, previous to filling them with honey, 
will not be of any benefit, unless they are kept damp after- 
wards. 

830. In October, the honey of the July crop is all granu- 
lated, and that of the September crop is beginning to gran- 
ulate. There are many different opinions in regard to the 
causes of granulation. Some think that it is effected by 
the action of light, but this is certainly a mistake, for our 
honey only sees the light when extracted, and is then kept 
in the dark until sold. We are more inclined to think that 
it is the action of cold air which causes granulation ; for 
sealed comb-honey generally remains liquid. The extracted 
honey, which we harvest, always granulates. We have hand- 
led liquid honey, however, several times, but we have always 
found it to be unripe ; and have laid it down as a rule for 
ourselves, that good honey should, be granulated after Nov- 



482 HONEY HANDLING. 

ember. We speak of honey harvested in the Mississippi 
valley ; such as clover, basswood, knot-weed, golden rod, 
buckwheat, Spanish-needle, etc. 

831. Of California honey, we can say nothing, having 
never handled it. But we have handled Louisiana honey, 
which, we were told, would not granulate before a year, and 
we had scarcely had it three weeks in our cold climate, before 
it began to granulate. The only ripe honey which did not 
granulate, was a lot of Spanish-needle honey, which had 
been extracted late in November. It remained liquid until 
sold, a month or two later, and we ascribed its not granu- 
lating to the late harvesting of it. 

832. Every bee-keeper has noticed that, at times, honey 
hardens in very coarse and irregular granules, that look like 
lumps of sugar, and have no adherence with one another, 
with a small amount of liquid honey interposed between 
them ; and that at other times, the candying is compact, 
and can be compared to the hardening of lard. 

The first kind of granulation is alwaj^s produced in honey 
harvested, like clover or basswood, during the warm months 
of the year ; while the soft candying is prevalent in the 
honey extracted in the Fall. In France, coarsely granulated 
honey is held as less valuable than the fine grained honey, 
and there is a good reason for this preference, for the 
coarsely granulated honey cannot be kept as well as the fine 
grained. 

In this country also, coarsely granulated honey sells with 
less facility — especially because many ignorant persons 
imagine that it has been adulterated with sugar, and that 
the coarse grains are lumps of sugar. 

We think that this coarse granulation is the result of 
an aggregation of particles, which, having an affinity for 
each other, unite, while the honey remains liquid in Sum- 
mer. 

In such honey, the liquid parts come to the surface, and 



MARKETING HONEY. 483 

absorbing moisture from the air, are very apt to become 
acid by fermenting. But, even after granulation, it can 
easily be brought to a fine grain by melting it. and exposing 
it to the cold of our Northern Winters. Basswood honey 
would even be benefited by this, as it would lose a little of 
its too strong flavor. 

Basswood and clover hone}' are more apt to ferment than 
any other class of honey, even when thoroughly granulated, 
if they remain exposed to the heat of the following Sum- 
mer, and it is advisable to keep these two kinds in a cool, 
dry place during the hot weather. A damp cellar would 
be objectionable, since honey readily absorbs moisture from 
the air. 

833. Those bee-keepers who will follow our methods, of 
extracting (751) after the honey crop, will have but little 
trouble with honey fermenting, even if they have to keep 
it through the following Summer. If any honey should fer- 
ment, however, let them not think that it is spoiled, unless 
it was really unripe and has turned quite sour. A slight 
amount of alcoholic ferment can be evaporated readily by 
melting the honey over water, when the ferment escapes in 
the shape of foam. As this fermentation is caused by the 
presence of unripe honey, some of our friends succeed in 
entirely preventing it by melting all their honey immedi- 
ately after granulation. The melting evaporates all excess 
of moisture contained in it, and we highly commend this 
method. 

Mr. C. F. Muth of Cincinnati, whose large experience 
in handling honey makes him a high authority, ripens all 
his honey by keeping it in open vessels in a dry and ven- 
tilated room, for a month or two after extracting. 

834. Melting Honey. Honey should never be placed 
directly over a fire to melt it. The least over-heating will 
evaporate its essential oils, and give it the burnt taste of 
dark molasses instead. It should be put in a tin or copper 



484 HONEY HANDLING. 

vessel, and this in another large vessel containing water. 
This heating au bain-marie, as the French call it, is resorted 
to by cooks, confectioners and others, whenever there is 
any danger of scorching the substance heated. 

835. The increase of honey production has been so great, 
in a few years, that the consumption has barely kept pace 
with it. But it will soon take its rank among necessities, 
like butter or syrups ; and change from a luxury to a staple. 

836. Our first crops of extracted honey, were sold read- 
ily at wholesale, and at good prices; for it was then that 
the wholesale dealers and manufacturers were making the 
largest profits, by mixing the hone}', which the}- bought 
from bee-keepers, with cheap substances, like glucose, 
which kept the honey from granulating, and by putting it 
up in tumblers, with a small piece of comb honey in the 
center. This honey, or rather mixture of honey, was sold 
by them usually at lower prices than they had paid for the 
pure honey. But ready sales in this way did not last long ; 
for, after a year or two, the markets were crowded with this 
drug ; and we were left to market our honey alone ; if we 
did not want to sell it for little above nothing. 

Should our readers ever come across suspicious-looking 
honey, they will find the following a cheap recipe to recog- 
nize adulteration : 

"Put in a small vial about one ounce of the honey to be 
tested, fill the vial with pure cistern water, shake thoroughly, 
to dissolve the honey ; then add to the mixture about a thimble- 
ful of pure alcohol. If the honey is pure the solution will remain 
unchanged, but if adulterated with glucose, it will be turbid and 
whitish. 

"This is the means used by the honey dealers of Paris, to detect 
adulterated honey." — (Amiales de la Societe a" Apiculture de VAube.) 

The present low prices have put an end to adulteration, 
for, a fair grade of Southern or California honey can now 
be bought as cheaply, at wholesale, as the vile, unhealthy 



MARKETING HONEY. 485 

compound, adorned with the name of golden syrup, golden 
drip, etc. 

837. But a slight prejudice remains in the minds of 
some buyers, against hone}-, unless they are acquainted 
with the producer. This prejudice has been helped by idle 
writers whose sensational stories found their way in the 
newspapers, concerning the supposed manufacture of arti- 
ficial comb-honey. 

Alas ! that so many sensible people should give credit 
to such ridiculous canards! A minute's examination of 
a sealed honey comb, will convince any sensible person 
of the utter impossibility of its artificial manufacture. Nev- 
ertheless, we knew of grocers who bought and sold beauti- 
ful comb-honey believing it to be artificial, on the strength 
of those newspaper stories. These willful and silly lies 
were finally put an end to by an authoritative article in the 
" American Grocer" of November 10th, 1886, concerning 
manufactured honey and manufactured eggs. We quote a 
few passages of this lengthy article : 

" Glucose at all lit for adulteration is worth from 4i to 5 cents 
per pound. In California, excellent honey is now sold for 3 
cents ( *) per pound. This state of affairs makes it more feasible 
and more likely that glucose should be adulterated with honey, 
than that honey should be adulterated with glucose. We now come 
to artificial comb-honey. The only way in which it is possible 
to put a spurious article of comb-honey on the market would be 
by feeding the bees glucose or some other substitute; and 
there would be a greater probability of this being done were it not 
for the fact that the bees must consume a very large quantity of 
honey or other sweets to enable them to secrete a very small 
quantity of white wax from which the comb is made. . . . 

" Our last point is in reply to the newspaper statements that 
were so widespread a year or two ago, to the etlect that our comb 

* We have before our eyes the price-list of a San Die^o, Cal. Jinn, who 
offered extracted honey (October 1st, 1886), as low as 3^ cents per pound; 
with a discount of 3 per cent, on car load lots. 



486 HONEY HANDLING. 

honey on the market was made by machinery, and that neither 
comb nor contents ever came from a bee-hive. So widespread 
was this falsehood, that in our journal of November 1, 1885, 
page 738, I offered $1,000 to anybody who would tell me where 
such spurious comb-honey was made. No one has ever given 
the information, neither has one ounce of manufactured comb- 
honey ever been forthcoming. It is a mechanical impossibilitv, 
and will, in my opinion, always remain so. . . . I hardly need 
add, that the above slanderous report in regard to bogus comb- 
honey was very damaging to the bee-keeping industry. It prob- 
ably obtained wider credence because one Prof. Wiley, some 
years ago, started it by what he termed a ' scientific pleasantry '. 
" In regard to the artificial eggs, I believe this will be a feat 
still more difficult to accomplish than making artificial honey- 
comb, especially if these artificial eggs are expected to hatch. 
Some of the newspapers have jocosely declared that such eggs 
would hatch, but that the chickens did not have any feathers on 
them, the invention not yet being sufficiently ' perfected ', etc." 
— A. I. Root. 

838. The granulation of honey was objected to by many 
consumers, at first, from the prejudiced idea that granula- 
ted honey had been mixed with sugar. It has ceased to be 
an objection, for, in our neighborhood, nearly all honey 
consumers now know that good ripe honey generally gran- 
ulates in cold weather. But, now and then, a person is 
found who wants liquid honey, or comb honey, thinking 
that no other is pure. 

We were told that the judges at an agricultural exposi- 
tion refused to give a premium to a bee-keeper for his honey, 
because it was spoiled by granulating. These competent 
judges probably think that water is spoiled by freezing, for 
granulated honey if carefully melted (834), is as good as 
before hardening. 

839. We have always found an easy sale for extracted 
honey among foreigners — especially German or French ; 
as they have been used to granulated strained honey, 
which has been produced for centuries in almost all parts of 
Europe. Some of them are so well acquainted with it, that 



MARKETING HONEY. 487 

they prefer it to the finest cornb-honey, saying that comb 
is not made to be eaten. 

Once, having received a favor from a French farmer, 
living a short distance from us, we selected a beautiful 
large comb of nicely sealed clover honey, while extracting, 
and sent it to this family after having carefully laid it 
on a dish. Much to our astonishment, we learnt, a few 
days after, that the good French housewife had put our 
nice comb in a clean towel, carefully pressed the honey 
out, and melted the wax ; and besides, that she was very 
much astonished at our having sent comb honey to her, 
when we had such nice extracted honey on hand. The 
reader may readily imagine that thenceforth we never sent 
to them anything but extracted honey, much to their satis- 
faction and ours. 

Every bee-keeper who understands his business, should 
try to sell his honey when granulated, explaining to his cus- 
tomers that adulterated honey does not granulate, and 
that granulation is the best proof of purity. We have 
these words printed on all our labels. 

840. To improve the present prices of honey, which are 
in some cases lower than the prices of second class sweets, 
it is necessary that the masses should be induced to buy it. 
Thus far it is an article which few persons will buy regu- 
larly. Consumers will go to the grocery for tea, coffee, 
sugar, flour, meal, butter, etc., but very few make it a cus- 
tom to buy honey — not that they dislike it, for " what is 
sweeter than honey? " but because they are not used to it. 

All children, even in the heart of our manufacturing cen- 
ters, have heard of "honey," but how many have never tasted 
it ! Why ? Twenty-five years ago honey was thirty cents 
per pound. Ten years ago the very cheapest grades retailed 
higher than the best sugars. To-day, in many places, honey 
is still retailed at from fifteen to twenty cents, while four- 
teen pounds of the best sugar are sold for a dollar. Yet 



488 



HONEY HANDLING. 



the Apiarists crowd it to the markets at prices ranging as 
low as three cents. What is lacking? Proper distribution. 
Instead of shipping our honey to the cities, whence it will 
be partly shipped back to our Tillage retailers after having 
passed through the hands of commission men, and wholesale 
merchants, we must cultivate home consumption. We must 
show our neighbors, our farmers, our mechanics, at home, 
that our progressive methods enable us to furnish to them 
the sweetest of all siveets, at nearly as low a price as syrups. 
The occasional depression of the honey markets is but tem- 
poral and its termination is only a question of time. 

841. It is important, in offering honey, whether to gro- 
cers or to consumers, to have it put up in neat and at- 
tractive shape. Comb-honey in 
sections weighing only a pound 
sells best, because it is, and always 
will be, a fancy article. 

But in putting up extracted 
honey, a one-pound package is 
now too small. We must encour- 
age a consumption in which the 
expense of packing will not ma- 
terially advance the cost, and we 
find that, owing to this advance 
of cost, the one or one and-a- 
quarter-pound package is less in 
demand than it was a few years 
ago. 

842. Tin is the cheapest pack- 
age for honey, in small quantities. 
Our favorite sizes are two and-a- 
half-pound, five-pound, and ten- 
pound pails. The two and-a-half- 
pound pail is in great demand, and in the Winter of 1886-7, 
the bulk of our crop of that year, about 24,000 lbs. , was sold 




Fig. 19b. 
HONEY PAILS. 



MARKETING HONEY. 489 

in this package, at twenty-three cents per pail, or about 
nine cents per pound. 

Some of our readers will ask why we do not put up our 
hone}* in these pails from the first, instead of putting it up 
in barrels. We never do so, because we do not know what pro- 
portion of each size will be required by the trade ; because 
honey in cans occupies too much room, and is not so easily 
moved out of the way ; and especially because we keep honey 
from the best seasons for the years of poorer crop, and it 
keeps best in barrels. We have kept honey in pails for two 
years or more, but the pail often rusts on the outside, and 
becomes unsalable. The objections above given are very 
weighty, in extensive production, when tens of thousands 
of pounds have to be cared for, but the small producer 
may, if he chooses, put up his honey, at once, in retail 
packages. 

843. To stop the accidental leakage of honey in pails — 
for, owing to its weight, it will leak through seams that are 
water-tight — we simply rub over the leaky spot a little 
tallow-wax, prepared b} r melting beeswax with tallow or 
lard, in varied quantities. We also prevent the running 
over of pails of liquid honey, when transported in hot 
weather, by dipping the top edge of the pail in melted 
tallow-wax, before filling it. This puts a small rim of the 
ingredient around the outer edge of the pail, and the cover 
fits over it, air-tight. 

A great deal of honey is sold in glass jars, but our objec- 
tion to them is that granulated honey does not look well in 
them, and they are more costly than tin. Honey, in tin, 
can be put up gross weight, and although no one objects to 
the weight of the pail, this weight helps to pay for its cost. 
Those who use glass as a honey package, melt the honey 
before bottling it. 

For shipping honey in small packages, Mr. Aug. Christie, 
a large producer of Iowa, puts it up in soldered cans. But 



490 HONEY HANDLING-. 

the honey must be very ripe, or else must be previously 
heated, for the least fermentation would burst the can. 

844. In every case when honey is sold, it should be 
neatly labeled with the name and address of the producer, 
which is, in itself, a guarantee of its quality. 

When you go into a strange grocery, where you are 
unknown, the immediate answer of the grocer, to your 
mention of honey is : "I don't want any honey ; I have no 
sale for it, and I don't like to handle it." Should you then 
take your leave and go, there would be but little hope of 
increasing your sales. You have to study, and learn to 
imitate the cunning and the perseverance of the traveling 
agent, and quietly talk it out. You first have to assure the 
grocer that you only wish to show him your goods and your 
prices at his leisure, and that he can then refuse to buy, if he 
chooses. You must show him why he has no sale for honey. 
You tell him that pure honey is one of the best sweets in the 
world, to which he readily agrees. You then explain that 
hone}', not being a staple, his customers never come on pur- 
pose to buy it, but that when they see it, they are tempted 
to buy ; that, for this reason, it should be put up with large 
and show}- labels, and placed in a conspicuous position, so 
that it will readily catch the eye. 

845. White honey in nice sections (721) will generally 
sell at sight, unless the grocer has had some leaky pack- 
ages, which dripped honey on the counter, left a sticky 
reminiscence of their presence, and attracted flies and bees. 
But if your honey is put up caref ully, according to direc- 
tions given, the first sale alone will be difficult. In selling 
extracted honey it ma}' be necessary for you to explain the 
difference between extracted honey, and the strained (276) 
honey of old ; for now and then some persons are found 
who do not know any thing about this, or about the facility 
with which granulated honey may be liquefied. 

With grocers that were unacquainted with us, we usually 



MARKETING HONEY. 491 

began by supplying them with yellow honey, such as buck- 
wheat, or heartsease, or golden rod. This honey, strong in 
flavor, sells better to the inexperienced, who are afraid of 
getting sugar, or glucose. It is only after one or two years 
that we venture to offer to such grocers our whitest clover 
and bass-wood, which, though of superior flavor, are ob- 
jected to, on account of their very beauty and quality. In 
every case we try to furnish some good reference to the 
grocer, and we give him a full guarantee of satisfaction, 
with an agreement to take the honey back, if it does not 
prove altogether as we represent it. When a dealer is well 
satisfied that the merchandise which he sells is pure, his 
customers are quite likely to have confidence in it them- 
selves ; but, on the other hand, if he is in doubt as to the 
quality and purity of it, he will have but little chance of 
selling it, unless he does not care for the satisfaction of his 
patrons. 

84:6. We must therefore spare no pains to fully convince 
our grocers of the quality of our goods. 

After the first sales have been made, the sales always be- 
come larger and easier. Of course, occasional objections 
are made, by persons who are unacquainted with the prop- 
erties and qualities of good honey ; but these are easily 
overcome, when you have once gained the confidence of 
the dealers. • 

Extracted honey is usually sold at between half and two- 
thirds of the price of comb-honey. It ships better, leaks 
less, and keeps more easily than comb-honey ; and its lower 
cost of production will sooner or later make it the honey for 
the masses. 



492 HONEY HANDLING. 



Uses of Honey. 



847. The traditions of the remotest antiquity show that 
honey has always been considered a pleasant and healthy 
food. For several thousand years, it was the only sweet 
known. 

Now that the sap of the cane, or the beet, converted into 
sugar, has become a necessity in every family, let us see 
what place honey may occupy in our diet, not only as a 
condiment like sugar, but as food, drink, and medicine. 

As Food. 

Honey as food is very healthy. It is admitted that those 
who use honey freely at meal time, find in it health and 
long life.* 

" It is Nature's offering to man — ready for use, distilled drop 
by drop in myriads of flowers, by a more delicate process than 
any human laboratory ever produced." — ( T. G. Newman, " Honey 
as Food and Medicine.") 

*The following extract from the work of Sir J More, London, 1707, will show 
the estimate which the old writers set upon bee-products : 

' ' Natural wax is altered by distillation into an oyl of marvellous vertue; it 
is rathev a Divine medicine than humane, because, in wounds or inward dis- 
eases it worketh miracles. The bee helpeth to cure all your diseases, and is 

the best little friend a man has in the world Honey is of subtil parts, 

and therefore doth pierce as oyl, and easily passeth the parts of the body; it 
cpeneth obstructions, and cleareth the heart and lights of those humors which 
fall from the head ; it purgeth the foulness of the body, cureth phlegmatick 
matter, and sharpeneth the stomach; it pnrgeth those things which hurt the 
clearness of the eyes, breedeth good blood, stirreth up natural heat, and pro- 
longeth lite; it keepeth all things uncorrupt which are put into it, and is a 
sovereign medicament, both for outward and inward maladies; it helpeth the 
greif of the jaws, the kernels gi-owing within the mouth, and the squinancy; 
it is drank against the biting of a serpent or a mad do ;•; it is good for such as 
ha\ e eaten mushrooms, for the falling sickness, and against the surfeit. Being 
boiled, it is lighter of digestion, and more nourishing. " 



HONEY AS FOOD. 493 

848. When Augustus-Julius-Csesar, dining with Pollio- 
Bumilius on his hundredth birthday, inquired of him how he 
had preserved both vigor of body and mind, Pollio replied : 
"Interius melle, exterius oleo." — Internally by honey, ex- 
ternally by oil. 

Honey is in daily use on our table, and we find that 
children prefer it to sugar. The only cause of its not 
being in general use in place of "vile syrups" is the high 
price at which it was formerly sold. 

Mr. Newman in his little pamphlet above quoted, sa} r s: — 

"It is a common expression that honey is a luxury, having 
nothing to do with the life-giving principle. This is an error — 
honey is food in one of its most concentrated forms. True, it 
does not add so much to the growth of the muscle as does beef- 
steak, but it does impart other properties no less necessary to 
health and vigorous physical and intellectual action ! It gives 
warmth to the system, arouses nervous energy, and gives vigor 
to all the vital functions. To the laborer it gives strength — 
to the business man, mental force. Its effects are not like ordinary 
stimulants, such as spirits, &c, but it produces a healthy action, 
the results of which are pleasing and permanent — a sweet dis- 
position and a bright intellect." 

These words are so true that we have found them trans- 
lated, in European books, by noted Apiarists. 

849. As a condiment it can be used in many ways. In 
candies it will finally replace the unhealthful glucose of 
commerce. The confectioners who now use it, increase 
their trade every year. 

In France, u pain-d'epice" "gingerbread," is sold in 
immense quantities at the fairs. The best makes are sold 
at the most important fairs through the country. It keeps 
an in lefinite length of time, and farmers' wives are wont to 
buy enough to last for months. The following is the 
recipe : 

§50. Dissolve 4 ounces of soda, in a glass of warm skimmed 
milk. Take 4 pounds of flour and pour in the milk and enough 
warm honey to make a thick dough, flavor with anise and corian- 



494 USES OF HONEY. 

der seeds, cloves, and cinnamon, all powdered fine. Knead care- 
fully, as you would bread. Let it rise two hours in a warm place, 
spread in pans and bake in a moderately warm oven. Ten or 
twelve minutes will do, if the cakes are thin. As soon as the cake 
resists to the touch of the finger it is done. Before baking, it 
may be decorated with almonds, preserved lemon peel, etc. 
Wheat flour makes good " ■pain-d'epice" but some prefer rye 
flour. Fall honey is preferable for it, on account of its stronger 
taste . ' ' — UApiculteur. 

The spices may be varied according to taste. Some add 
powdered ginger, or grated lemon or orange peel. 

851. Crisp ginger bread can be made by mixing in it a 
quantity of broken almonds, blanched by dipping in boil- 
ing water, hazel-nuts, English walnuts, etc. The same 
dough, in skilled hands, with different seasonings, will 
make a variety of dainties, all with honey. 

Instead of lard or butter, artistic cooks use olive oil to 
grease the pans ; in America, cotton seed oil takes its place, 
and is good. The Italians sometimes use beeswax. 

§52. Alsatian Ginger Bread: "Take, yellow honey 1 pound, 
flour 1 pound, baking soda J ounce. Dissolve the soda in a table- 
spoonful of brandy, heat the honey and put in the flour and the 
soda. Knead the whole carefully, and cut in lumps before put- 
ting in the oven. 

" This mixture can be kept in the cellar for months and can be 
used to make the 

"Leckerli: Add to the dough, chopped almonds \ .lb., preserved 
orange peel 2 drams, ditto lemon 1 dram, cinnamon \ dram, and 
20 cloves, all finely powdered. Mix well and bake." (Dexxler, 
" Honey and its Uses." ) 

§53. Honey Cake. Warm half a glass of milk with \ pound of 
sugar in a stew pan. Put in § of a pound of honey and boil slowly. 
Then add 1 pound of flour, J dram of soda, and knead, spread on 
a pan and bake for an hour. 

§54. Italian '' Croccante Di Mandorle" : " Blanch two pounds 
of almonds, by dipping in boiling water. Slice them withaknife. 
x\dd the yellow peel of a lemon cut fine, some powdered 
vanilla, and a few lumps of sugar flavored by rubbing them on 
orange peel. Boil 2 pounds of good honey with an ounce of olive 



HONEY AS FOOD. 495 

oil or good unsalted butter, till it is reduced to thick syrup 
Then add the almonds, lemon, etc., a little at a time, mix well, 
pour in a buttered tin pan and press the mixture against the 
sides with a lemon peel. It should not be more than half an 
inch thick. When cool take the crisp cake out of the vessel by 
warming it a little." (Sartori & Rauschexfels, IS Apicoltura in 
Italia.) 

§55. Mufti's Honey Cake: 4 quarts of hot honey and 10 pounds 
of flour, with ground anise seed, cloves and cinnamon to suit the 
taste. This is made into a dough and left to rest for a week or 
two, when it is rolled out in cakes and baked. The longer the 
rest, the better the cakes. 

Fruit jellies with honey. Take the juice of currants or other 
fruits, and after adding a like quantity of honey, boil to a jelly. 
Put in small tumblers, well sealed, in a dry room. 

856. Honey-vinegar is superior in quality to all other 
kinds, wine vinegar included. 

It takes from one to one and a half pounds of honey to 
make one gallon of vinegar. Two good authorities on 
honey vinegar, Messrs. Muth and Bingham, advise the 
use of only one pound of honey with enough water, to make 
each gallon of vinegar. We prefer to use a little more 
honey, as it makes stronger vinegar, but the weaker grade 
is more quickly made. If the honey water was too sweet, 
the fermentation would be much slower, and with difficulty 
change from the alcoholic, which is the first stage, into the 
acetic. This change of fermentation may be hurried by the 
addition of a little vinegar, or of what is commonly called 
vinegar mother. 

If honey water, from cappings, is used, a good test of 
its strength is to put an egg in it. The egg should float, 
coming up to the surface at once. If it does not rise 
easily, there is too little honey. As vinegar is made by the 
combined action of air and warmth, the barrel in which it 
is contained must be only partly filled, and should be kept 
as warm as convenient. It is best to make a hole in each 
head of the barrel, about four or five inches below the up- 



496 HONEY HANDLING. 

per stave, to secure a current of air above the liquid. 
These, as well as the bung hole, should be covered with 
very fine wire screen, or with cloth, to stop insects. 

A ver} T prompt method consists in allowing the liquid to 
drip slowly from one barrel into another, as often as pos- 
sible during warm weather. 

As we make vinegar not only for our own use, but also to 
sell to our neighbors, we keep two barrels, one of vinegar 
already made, the other fermenting. When we draw a gal- 
lon of vinegar, we replace it with a gallon from the other 
barrel. This keeps up the supply. 

Vinegar should not be kept in the same cellar with wines, 
as its ferment would spoil the wines sooner or later. 

Honey as Medicine. 

857. In Denmark and Hanover, the treatment of Chlor- 
osis, by honey, is popular. The pale girls of the cities are sent 
to the country, to take exercise and eat honey. The good 
results of this treatment have suggested to Lehman the 
theory that the insufficiency of hepathic sugar is the cause 
of Chlorosis, which thus explains the curing effect of honey. 
(Jaccoud, as quoted by the Revue Internationale cV Apicul- 
ture. ) 

Honey, mixed with flour, is used to cover boils, bruises, 
burns, etc. ; it keeps them from contact with the air, and 
helps the healing. Beverages, sweetened with honey, will 
cure sore throat, coughs, and will stop the development of 
diphtheria, especially if taken on an empt} y stomach, at bed 
time. A glass of wine or cider, strongly sweetened with 
honey, is advised in L'Apiculteur, as a cure for colds. 

(1886.) 

Suckling babies are cured of constipation, by a mixture 
of bread and honey given them, tied in a " sugar teat." 



Plate 16. 




THOS. G, NEWMAN, 
Editor of " The American Bee JournaV ; Author of '•'•Bees and Honey." 

This writer is mentioned pages 374, 375, 383, 404, 440, 479, 492, 493, 497. 



HONEY AS MEDICINE. 497 

A constant use of honey, at meal time, cures some of the 
worst cases of piles. 

" According to Mr. Woiblet, washing the hands with sweet- 
ened water will kill . warts. Having heard of this healing 
he put honey plasters on the hands of a child who had a large 
wart in the palm of the hand, and after a few days of treatment 
the wart disappeared." — Bertrand, (Revue Internationale d' Api- 
culture.) 

To these many uses of honey, we might add other recipes, 
but our limits forbid. For all sorts of honey-cakes, wines, 
metheglin, mead, etc., we will refer our readers to the 
already mentioned pamphlet of Mr. T. G-. Newman, of Chi- 
cago, "Honey as Food and Medicine." The price is a 
trifle. It contains many good things, 
32 



498 BEESWAX AND ITS USES. 

CHAPTER XXI. 

Beeswax, and its Uses. 

Melting Wax. 

858. We will now describe the different processes used 
by bee-keepers to render the combs into wax. To melt 
every comb, or piece of comb, as it is taken from the hive, 
would increase the work, and, as it is preferable to choose 
our time for this operation, we have to preserve them from 
the ravages of the moths (802) by some of the methods 
that we have given (812). 

859. The cappings (772) after extracting (775), are 
allowed to drain in a warm place for several weeks ; very 
nice honey being obtained from them. They are then 
washed in hot water, and the sweet water obtained can be 
used for cider, or wine, or vinegar (856). These cap- 
pings, as well as the broken pieces of white comb in which 
brood was never raised, should be melted apart from the 
darker combs, for, not only are they easier to melt, but, the 
wax obtained being very bright in color, is unsurpassed for 
making comb-foundation (674) for surplus boxes (688). 

860. When the combs are blackened by the dejections 
of the worker bees (784), or of the drones (40), and by 
the skins and cocoons of the larvae (167), it is so difficult 
to render the wax, that many bee-keepers think it is not 
worth the trouble. We advise washing these combs and 
keeping them under water for about twenty-four hours. 
Then the cocoons and other refuse being thoroughly wet 
and partly dissolved, will not adhere to the wax. This 
will be lighter colored, if the ccfnbs are melted with 



MELTING WAX. 499 

clear water and not with the water already darkened by 
the washing. 

But as this method always leaves some wax in the resi- 
dues, for some of it goes into the cells during the melting, 
and it is impossible to dislodge it, a better result is obtained 
by crushing the combs before washing them. But this pul- 
verizing can be done only in Winter, when the wax is brittle. 

861. The combs should be melted with soft or rain water, 
the boiler kept about two-thirds full, and heated slowly, to 
prevent boiling over. If the floor, around the stove, is kept 
wet, any wax that may drop will be easily peeled off. 

During the melting carefully stir till all is well dissolved. 
Then lower into the boiler a sieve made of a piece of 
wire cloth, bent in the shape of a box, from which the wax 
can be dipped as it strains into it. If the whole is thor- 
oughly stirred for some time, very little wax will be left in 
the residues. This is the cheapest and best method of 
rendering wax, without the help of a specially made wax- 
extractor. 

862. To obtain as much wax as possible from the 
combs, the large wax manufacturers of Europe empty the 
contents of the boiler into a bag, made of horse-hair or 
strong twine, and place the bag under a press while boiling 
hot. All the implements used, as well as the bag, are pre- 
viously wetted, to prevent their sticking. 

863. Some bee-keepers use a wax-boiler in which the wax 
is melted by steam. 

But the best wax can be rendered by a solar extractor 
(fig. 197), yet, by its use, some wax is always left in the 
refuse, for the cocoons, skins of larvae, etc., being dry, 
always absorb more or less of it. This implement however 
is destined to overthrow all others for the rendering of wax 
in all countries where the heat of the sun is sufficiently 
powerful. At this latitude, the 42°, sun- extractors can be 
efficiently used during the months of May, June, July, and 



500 



BEESWAX AND ITS USES. 



August. The sun-extractor requires no labor from the Apia- 
rist, other than filling it with combs and removing the 



melted wax. 




J97. (From 'Gleanings.") 
SUN-EXTRACTOR. 

864. The dealers in France buy, from the bee-keepers, 
for little or nothing, the residues of their melted combs. 
They dissolve them in turpentine, press the pulp dry, 
and distill the liquid, to separate the turpentine. As the 
wax is not volatile, it remains in the still. It is said that, 
when wax was dearer than it is now, large profits were 
realized by this operation. 

865. To cleanse beeswax from its impurities, we melt it 
carefully with cistern water and pour it into flaring cans 
(wider at the top than at the bottom) containing a little 
boiling water. This wax is kept in the liquid state, at a 
high temperature, for twenty-four hours. During this time, 
the impurities drop to the bottom and can be scraped 
from the cake when cold. Some wax can be obtained 
from this refuse, but some of it is always left in the 
dregs, as is proven by the impossibility of dissolving them 
by exposure. We have lumps of this refuse, as dark as 
ink, which were scattered on our farm, with manure, ten 
years ago, and are just as they were when put in the fields. 
Nothing can destroy beeswax, except fire, or the ravages of 
the bee-moth. Exposure to the weather does not affect it, 
but only bleaches it. 

To prevent the cakes of wax from cracking, it should be 



MELTING WAX. 501 

poured into the molds or cans when only 165° Fahr. and 
should be kept in a warm place to cool slowly. 

866. The utmost care is necessary not to spoil wax in melt- 
ing it. If heated too fast, the steam may disaggregate it. 
Then its color is lighter, but very dim ; the wax having lost 
its transparency, resembles a cake of corn meal. When it 
is in this condition, water will run out of it if a small lump is 
pressed between the fingers. The best way to restore it is 
to melt it slowly in a solar wax extractor (fig. 197). We 
have succeeded also by melting it with water, and keeping 
the water boiling slowly till all the water contained between 
the particles of wax had evaporated. But this work is 
tedious and cannot be accomplished without the greatest 
care and a skillful hand. Whatever the means used, you 
may rely on more or less waste.* 

Wax-bleachers draw wax into small ribbons which are 
exposed to the rays of the sun for several weeks, or melted 
with chemical acids ; but wax-bleaching is beyond the pur- 
pose of this book. 

Uses of Wax. 

867. Before the invention of parchment, prepared as a 
material for writing, from the skins of goats, sheep, calves, 
etc., tablets covered with alight coat of wax were used. A 
style — an instrument sharp at one end to engrave characters 
in the wax, and broad and smooth at the other end to erase 
them — was used in place of a pen. The Latin poet Horatius, 
born sixty-five years before Christ, probably used these 
tablets, for, in his admonition to poets, he writes: "Soepe 
stylum vertas. — " turn often your style ;" thereby meaning: 
"Carefully correct your writings." 

* Whenever beeswax is melted in water, even with the utmost care, some 
Email portions of it are water-damaged and settle to the bottom of the cake 
with the dregs . This water-damaged beeswax has often been mistaken for 
pollen residues. 



502 BEESWAX AND ITS USES. 

Several nations of old, having noticed that beeswax does 
not rot, used it to embalm their dead. Alexander the Great 
was embalmed with wax and honey. 

868. Beeswax is largely used by the Catholic churches, 
for lights, during the ceremonies, for it is prescribed to 
priests to use exclusively wax produced by bees. 

869. In several countries of Europe the floors and stairs, 
instead of being covered with carpets, are rubbed with wax 
and carefully scrubbed with a dry brush every day till they 
shine. In Paris, floor scrubbing is a business which sup- 
ports many working families. 

Beeswax is used also by the sculptors and painters to 
varnish their work, to model wax figures ; by dentists to 
take imprints of jaw-bones. It is retailed in small lumps and 
used to give smoothness and stiffness to thread for sewing. 

870. The casting of bronze statues and works of art, a 
tire perdue, has been largely practiced in France since the 
Renaissance. This process is mentioned in Harpers' Monthly 
for September, 1886. 

871. Beeswax forms part of a great many medicines, and 
pomades for the toilet. Here are a few recipes selected 
among hundreds of others : 

1. Salve or Cerate for Inflamed Wounds. 

Beeswax 1 part, 

Sweet almond oil 4 parts. 

Dissolve the wax in the oil and stir well till cold. Sweet 
almond oil can be replaced by olive, or cotton seed, or lin- 
seed oil, or even by fresh unsalted butter. 

This cerate, may be used as a vehicle by the endermic 
method — we mean by frictions on the thin parts of the 
skin — to introduce into the blood several substances, 
such as quinine, against fever ; sulphur, for itches ; cam- 
phor, henbane, opium, as sedatives ; iodine, as depurative ; 
and so on, the only care being to have the drugs carefully 
mixed. 



USES OF WAX. 503 



2d. Turpentine Balm for Atonic Wounds, (without inflam- 
mation) : 

Yellow Beeswax \ 

Turpentine > Equal parts. 

Essence of Turpentine... ) 
Melt the wax, add the turpentine, then the essence. 



3d. Salve for the Lips : 

Wax one part, 

Sweet Almond Oil two parts. 

•Add a small quantity of Carmine to color it, strain and 

add, when melted again and half cold, some volatile Oil of 

Rose. 

4th. Adhesive Plaster for Cuts (sweet-scented) : 

Colophony 40 parts, 

Wax 45 " 

Elemi rosin „ 25 " 

Melt and add : 

Oil of Bergamot 5 parts 

" Cloves 2 " 

" Lemon 2 " 

5th. Green Wax for Corns : 

Yellow wax 4 parts, 

White pitch 2 " 

Venice Turpentine 1 " 

Sub-acetate Copper (finely powd. ) 1 " 
Melt the wax and the white pitch, add the acetate of cop- 
per, well mixed with the turpentine, and stir till cold. If 
too hard to be spread on small pieces of cloth, add a little 
olive, or cotton seed, oil. 



504 BEESWAX AND ITS USES. 

6. Balm of Lausanne, for Ulcerated Chilblains and 
Chaps of the Mammas or Teats : 

Olive or Cotton seed oil 500 

Rosin of Swiss Turpentine 100 

Yellow Wax 133 

Powdered Root of Alkanet 25 

Keep it melted au bain-marie (834) for half an hour 
and add : 

Balsamum Peruvian um 16 

Gum Camphor 1 

7. Mixture to Remove the Cracks in Horses' Hoofs : 

Melt equal parts of wax and honey on a slow fire, and 
mix thoroughly. 

Clean carefully the hoof with tepid water and rub the 
mixture in it with a brush. The cracks will disappear after 
several applications and the hoof will be softened. 

8. To Keep the Luster of Polished Steel Tools : 

Oil of Turpentine 8 

Wax. 1 

Boiled Linseed Oil % 






! 



BEES AND FRUITS AND FLOWERS,. 505 

CHAPTER XXII 
Bees and Fruits and Flowers. 



871. We have shown, in the chapter on Physiology 
(43), that bees cannot injure sound fruits, and in the chap- 
ter on Food (268), that they help the fecundation of 
flowers ; but this accusation of bees injuring fruits has 
become of so much importance in the past few years, espe- 
cially in the best fruit and bee country of the world, Cali- 
fornia, that we deem it necessary to give it a whole chapter. 

While the honey-bee is regarded by the best informed hor- 
ticulturists as a friend, a strong prejudice has been excited! 
against it by many fruit-growers ; and in some communi- 
ties, a man who keeps bees, is considered as bad a neigh- 
bor, as one who allows his poultry to despoil the gardens 
of others. Even some warm friends of the "busy bee,'" 
may be heard lamenting its propensity to banquet on their 
beautiful peaches and pears, and choicest grapes and plums- 

That bees do gather the sweet juice of fruits when 
nothing else is to be found, is certain ; but it is also evident 
that their jaws being adapted chiefly to the manipulation 
of wax, are too feeble to enable them to puncture the skin 
of the most delicate grapes. 

872. We made experiments in our Apiary on bees and 
grapes, during the season of 1879, — one of the worst sea- 
sons we ever knew for bees. The Summer having been 
exceedingly dry, the grape crop was large and the honey 
crop small. In every vineyard a number of ripe grapes 
were eaten by bees, and the grape-growers in our vicinity 
were so positively certain that- the bees were guilty, that 



506 BEES AND FRUITS AND FLOWERS. 

they held a meeting, to petition the State Legislature, 
for a law preventing any one from owning more than ten 
hives of bees. 

This serious charge called our attention to the matter, and 
we decided to make a thorough investigation, in our own 
vineyard. But although many bees were seen banqueting on 
grapes, not one was doing any mischief to the sound fruit. 
Grapes which were bruised on the vines, or lying on the 
ground, and the moist stems, from which grapes had 
recently been plucked, were covered with bees ; while other 
bees were observed to alight upon bunches, which, when 
found by careful inspection to be sound, they left with evi- 
dent disappointment. 

Wasps and hornets, which secrete no wax, being fur- 
nished with strong, saw- like jaws, for cutting the woody 
fibre with which they build their combs, can easily pene- 
trate the skin of the toughest fruits. While the bees, there- 
fore, appeared to be comparatively innocent, multitudes of 
these depredators were seen helping themselves to the best 
of the grapes. Occasionally, a bee would presume to alight 
on a bunch where one of these pests was operating for his 
own benefit, when the latter would turn and " show fight," 
much after the fashion of a snarling dog, molested by an- 
other of his species, while daintily discussing his own pri- 
vate bone. 

During grape picking, the barrels in which our grapes 
were hauled to the wine cellar, were covered with a cloud of 
bees feeding on the damaged clusters, and they followed 
the wagon to the cellar. After removing the barrels to a 
place of safety, we left one bunch of sound grapes, on the 
wagon, puncturing one of the grapes with a pin. This 
bunch, being the only one remaining exposed, was at once 
covered with such a swarm of bees that it was entirely hid- 
den from sight. It was three o'clock in the afternoon. At 
sunset the bees were all gone, except three, who were too 



GROUNDLESS PREJUDICES. 507 

exhausted to fly off. The bunch had lost its bloom, the 
grapes were shiny, but entirely sound. The one punct- 
ured grape had a slight depression at the pin hole, show- 
ing that the bees had sucked all the juice they could reach, 
but they had not even enlarged the hole. 

We also placed bunches of sound grapes inside of some 
four or five hives of bees, directly over the frames, and three 
weeks after we found that the bees had glued them fast to 
the combs, as they glue up anything they cannot get rid of, 
but the grapes were perfectly intact. This test can be made 
by every Apiarist. 

Mr. McLain, in charge of the U. S. Apicultural Station, 
was instructed to test this matter thoroughly by shutting 
up bees with sound fruit, and the results were the same 
as in our case. (See the Agricultural Reports for 1885.) 

873. The main damage to grapes is done by birds. 
Hence, the borders of a large vineyard are first to suffer, 
especially when in proximity to hedges, orchards or timber. 

Even in small cities, the number of birds that feed on 
fruit is extraordinary, and one can have no idea of their 
depredations until he has watched for them at day-break, 
which is the time best suited to their pilfering. 

After the mischief has been begun by them or by 
insects, or wherever a crack, or a spot of decay is seen, the 
honey-bee hastens to help itself, on the principle of " gath- 
ering up the fragments, that nothing may be lost." In this 
way, they undoubtedly do some mischief, but they are, on 
the whole, far more useful than injurious. 

875. Among thousands of testimonials, we translate the 
following from L'Apicoltore, of Milan, Italy, May 1874, 
page 181 : 

"Being a lover of good wine, I manufacture mine from wilted 
grapes ; my crop amounts annually to from thirty to forty hec- 
tolitres* of wine, worth on average, one franc seventy-five 

* One hectolitre is twenty-five gallons . 



508 BEES AND FRUITS AND FLOWERS. 

centimes per litre.* When my grapes are gathered, i spread 
them on mats of reed or straw in a sunny place in front of my 
Apiary, where they remain about two weeks. For the first two 
or three days the mats are covered with bees, but I pay no atten- 
tion to this, for I have ascertained that they gather only the 
juice of the berries that are damaged. As soon as the injured 
berries are sucked dry, the bees cease visiting the mats, for they 
cannot open sound berries. Instead of doing me any damage, 
they help me greatly, as they take away from my grapes the 
otherwise souring juices, which would give a bad taste to my 
wine. — G-aetano Taxini, Coriano, Italy, February 1874. 

876. Those who handle grapes, apples, etc., in times of 
honey-dearth, should avoid attracting the bees, by unneces- 
sarily exposing the crushed fruit, in warm weather, as the 
presence of bees in press-houses and sheds, where fruit is 
either made into wine, or otherwise prepared for use, is the 
greatest annoyance that they can cause the horticulturist. 

With a little care, a wine-grower may escape all trouble, 
even if his press-house is in reach of a large Apiary. But 
let him not imitate the grocer who had an open box of 
comb-honey at his door "for show," and tried to " shoo" 
the bees off, when they, in turn, deputized a few of their 
number to " shoo" him off, with great success. 

877. In these depredations, the wine-growers who do 
not own bees are often very much incensed, because they 
believe that the Apiarist is making a profit out of their 
loss. But such is not the case. The Apiarist loses more 
than the wine-grower, for many of the bees are destroj T ed, 
and the juice which the others bring home is worse than use- 
less, as it is bad Winter food (627). 

It is therefore, to the interest of the Apiarist, as well as 
of the fruit-grower, to prevent the bees, in all possible 
ways, from getting a taste of the forbidden juices, in sea- 
sons, — luckily scarce, — when there is a dearth of honey 
during wine-making time. 

♦This is about one dollar and forty cents per gallon, a high price for Italy. 



GROUNDLESS PREJUDICES. 509 

878. Some ignorant people have also contended that the 
numerous visits of bees to flowers, injure the latter and 
cause them to abort. This is the greatest of all delusions. 
White-clover, knot-weed, and Spanish-needles, which are 
among the plants most visited by bees, are also the most 
abundant, and if they were damaged, by being deprived of 
the honey which they yield, they would sooner or later dis- 
appear. All the observations that have been made, whether 
scientific or practical, show that the contrary is the truth 
(269). 

In 1885, at the earnest request of our enthusiastic friend, 
Jas. Heddon, a Bee-keepers' Union was formed to defend 
the interests of Apiarists in North America. Some such 
association is as necessary to Bee-keepers as Trades Unions 
to any group of laborers. " United we stand, divided we 
fall." 



510 bee-keeper's calendar. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 



Bee-Keeper's Calendar. 



This chapter gives to the inexperienced bee-keeper brief 
directions for each month in the year,* and, by means of 
the full Alphabetical index, all that is said on any topic can 
easily be referred to. 

879. January. — In cold climates, bees are now usually 
in a state of repose. If the colonies have had proper 
attention in the Fall, nothing will ordinarily need to be 
done that will excite them to an injurious activity. 

In January there are occasionally, even in very cold lati- 
tudes, days so pleasant that bees can fly out to discharge 
their fseces ; do not confine them, even if some are lost in 
the snow. 

It is advisable to arouse them early so as to cause them 
to fly (639) if the day is sufficiently warm. Otherwise, 
disturb them as little as possible. In very cold climates, 
where cellar wintering (646) is resorted to, all that is 
required is to keep the temperature as even and as near 42° 
to 45° as possible (648), with quietude and darkness 
(65G). The Winter months are those, in which the bee- 
keeper should prepare his hives, sections, foundation, &c. 
for the coming busy season. 

880. February. — This month is sometimes colder than 
January, and then the directions given for the previous 
month must be followed. In mild seasons, however, and in 
warm regions, bees begin to fly quite lively in February, 

*Palladius, who wrote on bees nearly 2,000 years ago, arranges his remarks 
in the form of a monthly calendar. 



bee-keeper's calendar. 511 

and in some locations they gather pollen (263). The 
bottom-board should be cleaned of the dead bees and other 
rubbish (663) that sometimes obstruct the entrance, and 
prevent the bees from flying out ; as their worry in finding 
themselves imprisoned does them much harm. If any hives 
are suspiciously light, food (607) should be given them ; 
this only in mild climates. 

Strong colonies will now begin to breed slightly, but 
nothing should be done to excite them to premature activity. 

884. March. — In our Northern States, the inhospitable 
reign of Winter still continues, and the directions given for 
the two previous months are applicable to this. If there 
should be a pleasant day, when bees are able to fly briskly, 
seize the opportunit}^ to remove the covers (636) ; care- 
fully clean out the hives (663), and learn the exact condi- 
tion of every colony. See that your bees have water 
(271), and are well supplied with rye-flour (265). In 
this month, weak colonies commonly begin to breed, while 
strong ones increase quite rapidly. 

If the Winter has been very severe, this month is the 
most destructive to unhealthy bees. The hives of dead colo- 
nies should be throroughly cleaned, and closed tightly to 
keep robbers (664) out, or they would carry off what 
honey msij remain in them. Spring dwindling (659) should 
be guarded against by shutting off all upward ventilation 
(352), and reducing the space in the brood-chamber (349) 
to the number of combs actually occupied by the bees. The 
entrance of the hives, especially of the weak colonies, should 
also be narrowed (348). 

If the weather is favorable, colonies which have been 
kept in a special Winter depository, may now be put upon 
their proper stands. 

The time of removal from cellars (646) must depend 
altogether on the locality. Dr. C. C. Miller removes his 
bees when the first maple tree blooms. In Canada, they are 



512 bee-keeper's calendar. 

sometimes left in the cellar till May. As a rule, bees are 
not, and should not be, wintered in cellars, south of the 
39th degree of latitude. 

882. April. — Bees will ordinarily begin to gather much 
pollen (263), in this month, and sometimes considerable 
honey. As brood is now very rapidly maturing, there is 
a largely increased demand for honey, and great care should 
be taken to prevent the bees from suffering for want of 
food (607). If the supplies are at all deficient, breeding will 
Ibe checked, even if much of the brood does not perish, or 
ithe whole colony die of starvation. If the weather is pro- 
rpitious, and the bees do not have a liberal supply of stores 
<on hand, feeding to promote a more rapid increase of 
young may now be commenced (605). Feeble colonies 
must now be reinforced (480), and should the weather 
•continue cold for several days at a time, the bees ought to 
Ibe supplied with water (271) in their hives. 

This point is much neglected, by ourselves, as well as by 
others, in practice, but we are convinced that much of our 
April loss is due to the bees going in search of water in in- 
clement weather (662). At this time, if not before, the 
larvae of the bee-moth will begin to make their appearance, 
and should be carefully destroyed, not that they are ver}*- 
damaging to bees in a carefully-conducted Apiary, but only 
that they give annoyance by their presence on the combs 
or comb-honey, removed from the bees, in the latter 
part of the season (812). " One stitch in time saves 
nine." One moth killed in April, prevents several thou- 
sand in October. 

It is at this time, that the hives should be inspected, to 
remove all drone comb (228) that can be found, as well 
as crooked combs and broken pieces, — to be replaced by 
straight worker comb (676), or strips of foundation 
(674). At this time, also, the hives that are intended for 
drone raising (511), should be supplied with sufficient 



bee-keeper's calendar. 513 

drone comb for the purpose. Queenless colonies should 
be given young brood to raise a new queen (489). 

883. Mat. — As the weather becomes more genial, the 
increase of bees in the colonies is exceedingly rapid, and 
drones, if they have not previously made their appearance, 
begin to issue from the hives that have been allowed to 
retain a notable amount of drone comb, and this is the 
time to raise queens for increase, or for improvement 
(489). 

The breeding space of weak colonies, which has been 
previously reduced, should again be enlarged as their needs 
may demand (349). If their combs are judiciously in- 
creased with a proper amount of stimulative food (606), 
and a little help from the stronger colonies (480), they 
may become as strong as any for the June harvest. In 
some localities, the strongest colonies may already gather 
much honey, and it will often be advisable to give them the 
spare honey receptacles (724); but in some seasons and 
localities, either from long and cold storms, or a deficiency 
of forage, hives not well supplied with honey will exhaust 
their stores, and perish, unless they are fed. In favorable 
seasons, swarms (406) may be expected in this month, 
even in the Northern States. These May swarms often 
issue near the close of the blossoming of fruit-trees, and 
just before the later supplies of forage, and if the weather 
becomes suddenly unfavorable, may starve, unless they are 
fed, even when there is an abundant supply of blossoms in 
the field. 

884. June. — This is the great swarming month in all 
our Northern and Middle States. As bees keep up a high 
temperature in their hives, they are by no means so depen- 
dent upon the weather for forwardness, as plants, and as 
most other insects necessarily are. We have had as early 
swarms in Northern Massachusetts, as in the vicinity of 
Philadelphia. 

33 



514 bee-keeper's calendar. 

If the surplus cases (724) have been put on before 
the honey crop, there will be a less number of swarms, espe- 
cially if the boxes have been furnished with combs, as baits, 
and the entrance enlarged to help ventilation (344). 

If the Apiary is not carefully watched, the bee-keeper, 
after a short absence, should examine the neighboring bushes 
and trees, on some of which he will often find a swarm 
clustered, preparatory to their departure for a new home 
(419). 

" As it may often be important to know from which hive 
the swarm has issued, after it has been hived and removed 
to its new stand, let a cup-full of bees be taken from it and 
thrown into the air, near the Apiarj T , after having sprinkled 
them with flour ; they will soon return to the parent colon} T , 
and may easily be recognized, by their standing at the en- 
trance, fanning, like ventilating bees." — Dzi:<:rzon. 

This is the quickest method to discover the home of a 
swarm. 

As fast as the surplus honey receptacles are filled, more 
room should be given (763). Careless bee-keepers often 
lose much, by neglecting to do this in season, thereby con- 
demning their colonies to a very unwilling idleness. The 
Apiarist will bear in mind, that all small swarms which come 
off late in this month, should be either aided, doubled or 
returned to the mother-colony. With movable-frame hives, 
the issue of such swarms may be prevented, b} T removing, 
in season, the supernumerary queen-cells. During all the 
swarming season, and, indeed, at all other times when 
young queens are being bred, the bee-keeper must ascer- 
tain seasonably, that the hives which contain them, succeed 
in securing a fertile mother (152). 

885. July. — In some seasons and districts, this is the 
great swarming month ; while in others, bees issuing so 
late, are of small account. In Northern Massachusetts, 
we have known swarms coming after the Fourth of July, to 



bee-keeper's calendar. 515 

fill their hives, and make large quantities of surplus honey 
besides. In this month, or as soon as the first crop is over, 
all the spare honey should be removed from the hives, 
before the delicate whiteness of the combs becomes soiled 
by the travel of the bees, or the purity of the honey is im- 
paired by an inferior article gathered later in the season 
(782). For the same reason, the honey extracted after 
this crop should not be mixed with that harvested later. In 
all the localities where a second crop is expected, the bees 
should again be incited to breed (606) to be ready for this 
second crop. 

The bees should have a liberal allowance of air during all 
extremely hot weather, especially if they are in unpainted 
hives, or stand in the sun (344). 

The larger the amount of honej' they contain, the greater 
the danger of combs breaking down from the intense heat 
(369). The end of the honey crop can be told by the 
presence of a few robbers who immediately begin lurking 
about the hives (664). 

886. August. — In most regions, there is but little forage 
for bees during the latter part of July, and the first of August, 
and they being, on this account, tempted to rob each other, 
the greatest precautions should be used in opening hives 
(666). In districts where buckwheat is extensively culti- 
vated, on fiat prairies, or in the low land surrounding our 
rivers, in which Fall-blossoms grow, the main harvest is 
sometimes gathered, during this month and the next, and 
swarming (406) may be resumed. In 1856, we had a 
buckwheat swarm as late as the 16th of September ! 

The bee-keeper who has queenless hives (499) on hand 
as late as August, must expect, as the result of his ignor- 
ance or neglect, either to have them robbed (664) by other 
colonies, or destroyed by the moth (802). 

887. September. — This is often a very busy month with 
bees. The Fall flowers are in full blossom, and in some 



516 bee-keeper's calendar. 

seasons, colonies which have hitherto amassed but little 
honey, become heavy, and even yield a surplus to their 
owner. Bees are quite reluctant to build comb so late in 
the season, even if supplies are very abundant ; but if empty 
combs are provided, they will till them with astonishing 
celerity (763). 

As soon as the first frost takes place, or whenever the 
crop is at end, the entire surplus must be removed, whether 
it be comb or extracted honey. If our method of extract- 
ing (781) is resorted to, the supers that have been returned 
to the bees, for cleaning, after the honey is extracted, may 
be left on the hives till October, as they are safer from the 
moths, when in care of the bees. 

If no Fall supplies abound, and any colonies are too light 
to winter with safety, then, in the Northern States, the latter 
part of this month is the proper time for feeding (608) 
them. We have already stated, that it is impossible to tell 
how much food a colony will require (623), to carry it 
safely through the Winter ; it will be found, however, very 
unsafe to trust to a bare supply, for, even if there is food 
enough, it may not always be readily accessible (631) to 
the bees. Great caution will still be necessary to guard 
against robbing ; but if there are no feeble, queenless or 
impoverished colonies, the bees, unless tempted by impro- 
per management, will not rob each other (664). 

888. October. — Forage is now almost entirely ex- 
hausted in most localities, and colonies which are too light 
should either be fed, or have surplus honey from other hives 
given to them, early this month. 

The extract! ng cases (781) should be removed previous to 
cold weather, as some bees may cluster in them and starve. 
These cases must be piled up caref ulty in the coldest room 
(810) of the honey house, safe from mice (816). The 
exact condition of every hive should be known now, at the 



bee-keeper's calendar. 517 

latest, and, if any are queenless, they should be broken up. 
Small colonies ought to be promptly united. 

The honey-selling season is now at hand, and from this 
time till the end of the holidays, the producer must look 
for a honey market. He should not rely on sale in large 
cities, for they are always crowded, but a home market 
must be cultivated (840). 

889. November. — The hives should now be put in 
Winter quarters, the quilt removed, and absorbents placed 
in the upper story (636). 

All possible shelter should be given (635). For cellar- 
wintering (646), the time of removing the bees should be 
at the opening of cold weather. The later in the season 
that the bees are able to fly out and discharge their faeces, 
the better. The bee-keeper must regulate the time of 
housing his bees by the season and climate, being careful 
neither to take them in until cold weather appears to be 
fairly established, nor to leave them out too late. A cold 
day, immediately after a warm spell is the best time 
(647). 

890. December. — In regions where it is advisable to 
house bees, the dreary reign of Winter is now fairly estab- 
lished, and the directions given for Januar}' are for the most 
part equally applicable to this month. It may be well, in 
hives out of doors, to remove the dead bees and other refuse 
from the bottom boards if the weather is warm enough for 
them to fly ; but, neither in this month nor at any other 
time should this be attempted with those removed to a dark 
and protected place. Such colonies must not, except under 
the pressure of some urgent necessity, be disturbed in the 
very least. 

We recommend to the inexperienced bee-keeper to read 
this synopsis of monthly management, again and again, and 
to be sure that he fully understands, and punctually dis- 
charges, the appropriate duties of each month, neglecting 



518 bee-keeper's calendar. 

nothing, and procrastinating nothing to a more convenient 
season ; for, while bees do not require a large amount of 
attention, in proportion to the profits yielded by them, they 
must have it at the proper time and in the right way. Those 
who complain of their unprofitableness, are often as much 
to blame as a farmer who neglects to take care of his stock, 
or to gather his crops, and then denounces his employment 
as jielding only a scanty return on a large investment of 
capital and labor. 

In Short. 

891. Spring. — Keep hives warm, give plenty of food, 
help weak colonies, look out for robbers, remove drone- 
comb, prepare for queen-breeding, and for the honey crop. 

892. Summer. — Watch for swarms ; and make divisions, 
if increase is wanted. Give sufficient storage-room. Give 
additional ventilation if needed. Whenever the crop is 
over, remove the surplus. 

893. Fall. — Look out for robbers, and for moths on 
unoccupied combs. See that all hives have sufficient stores 
for Winter, and unite worthless colonies to others. 

894. Winter. — For out of doors, pack absorbents in 
upper story, removing air-tight quilts. Shelter as much as 
possible from winds. Leave the bees quiet in cold weather, 
and see that they have a flight in warm weather. Do not 
be confident of safe wintering till March is over. Then 
proportionate the room to the strength of the colony. Fi r 
cellar wintering, take the bees in, after a warm da}', leave 
them quiet, in the dark, with an even temperature ; take 
them out on a warm day, and decrease the brood-chamber 
to suit the strength, of the colonies. 



ADVICE TO BEGINNERS. 510 



Mistakes that Beginners Are Liable to Make. 

895. 1. — They are apt to think themselves posted after 
they have read the theory, and before they get the practice. 

2. — Hence they are apt to invent or adopt neiv hives, 
that are lacking in the most important features (358). 

3. — They are apt to think that bees are harvesting honey, 
at times when they are starving. They should remember 
that each honey crop usually lasts only a few days, — a few 
weeks at most. 

4. — They are apt to mistake young bees on their first trip 
for robbers and vice versa. Young bees fly out in the after- 
noon only, and do not hunt around corners. Robbers are 
gorged with honey when coming out of the plundered hive, 
and a number of them are slick, hairless and shiny. Bees 
that have been fed in the hive or whose combs have been 
damaged, or extracted, and returned to the hive, act like 
robbers, and incite robbing (664). 

5. — They are apt to overdo artificial swarming (481). 

6. — They are apt to extract too much honey from the 
brood-combs (771). 

7. — They underestimate the value of good worker comb. 
(676). 

8. — They do not pay sufficient attention to the removal 
of the excess of drone-comb (675). 

9. — They become early discouraged by Winter losses and 
Spring dwindling. Some of our most successful Apiarists 
periodically lose a large portion of their colonies, and 
promptly recruit again, by the help of their empty worker- 
combs (676). 

10. — When they find bee-keeping successful, they are 
liable to rush into it on too large a scale before being suffi- 
ciently acquainted with it. "If there is any business in 



520 bee-keepers' axioms. 

this world that demands industry, skill and tact, to insure 
success, it is this of ours." — (Heddon.) 

11. — They are apt to try two or three different styles of 
hives, before they find out that it is important to have all 
the hives, frames, caps, crates, etc., in an Apiary, alike, 
and interchangeable, except for purposes of experiment. 

12. — They are liable to attempt to winter their bees in a 
cold room, or in some repository in which the temperature 
goes below the freezing point (648). Many a colony has 
been thus innocently murdered, by misguided solicitude. 



Bee-Keepers' Axioms. 



896. There are a few first principles in bee-keeping 
which ought to be as familiar to the Apiarist as the letters 
of his alphabet : 

1st. Bees gorged with honey never volunteer an attack. 
Thus, bees that come back loaded from the field, or bees 
that have gorged themselves for swarming, are not dan- 
gerous. 

2d. The bees that are to be feared are those that have 
joined a swarm without fully gorging themselves. In the 
hive, the guardians, and the old bees that are ready to 
depart for the field, are the most dangerous. 

3d. During a good honey harvest, the bees are nearly all 
filled with honey and there is but little danger from stinging. 

4th. Those races of bees that cannot be compelled, by 
smoke, to fill themselves with honey, are the most danger- 
ous, to handle. 

5th. Bees dislike any quick movements about their hives, 
especially any motion that jars their combs. 

6th. The bee-keeper will ordinarily derive all his profits 
from colonies, strong and healthy in early Spring. 



bee-keepers' axioms. 521 

7th. In districts where forage is abundant only for a short 
period, the largest yield of honey will be secured by a very 
moderate increase of colonies. 

8th. A moderate increase of colonies in any one season, 
will, in the long run, prove to be the easiest, safest, and 
cheapest mode of managing bees. 

9th. Queenless colonies, unless supplied with a queen, 
will inevitably dwindle away, or be destroyed by the bee- 
moth, or by robber-bees. 

10th. It must be obvious, to every intelligent bee-keeper, 
that the perfect control of the combs of the hive is the soul of 
a system of practical management, ivhich may be modified to 
suit the ivants of all who cultivate bees. 

11th. A man, who knows " all about bees," and does not 
believe that anything more can be gained by reading Bee- 
Journals, new bee-books, etc., will soon be far behind the 
age. Yet, as what is written in the journals and books, ours 
included, is not always perfectly correct, every bee-keeper 
should try to sift the grain from the chaff. 

12th. The formation of new colonies should ordinarily be 
confined to the season when bees are accumulating honey ; 
and if this, or any other operation must be performed, when 
forage is scarce, the greatest precautions should be used 
to prevent robbing. 

The essence of all profitable bee-keeping is contained in 
Oettl's Golden Rule: keep tour colonies strong. If you 
cannot succeed in doing this, the more money you invest 
in bees, the heavier will be your losses ; while, if your col- 
onies are strong jou will show that you are a bee-master, as 
well as a bee-keeper, and may safely calculate on generous 
returns from youv industrious subjects. 



INDEX OF ENGRAVINGS. 



-PLATES. 



Plate 1, L. L. Langstroth 

Frontispiece 

PAGE. 

2 Bees 2 

3 Huber, portrait of 8 

4 Legs 24 

5 Ovaries 56 

6 Dzierzon, portrait of 64 

7 Cheshire " " 80 



PAGE 

Plate 8 Comb "■ 89 

; " 9 Quinby, portrait of. 145 

" 10 German Apiary 153 

11 11 A. I. Eoot, portrait of . . . . 176 
"12 Mehring, " ' ' . . 368 
** 13 Foundation-table 377 

1 "14 Hruschka, portrait of 432 

11 15 Cook, " *«.... 480 

, " 16 Newman, ■« " .... 496 



II— TEXT ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Figures. Page 

1 Heads of bees— from ' ' Les Abeilles" of Girard 4 

2 Longitudinal section of drone antenna— from "Bees and Bee-keep- 

ing" of Cheshire 

3 Part of surface of antenna— from 'Bees and Beekeeping" of Ches- 

hire 10 

4 Longitudinal sections of worker antenna from Cheshire 11 

5 S aliva vy glands— from Girard 15 

6 Longitudinal section through head of worker— from Cheshire 16 

7 Head of honey hornet 18 

8 " " bee 18 

9 Mandible of honey hornet 18 

10 Mandible of honey bee 18 

11 Tongue and appendages— from Girard..- 20 

12 Bee's foot in climbing— from Cheshire 22 

13 Posterior legs — from Girard 23 

14 Wings of honey bee— copied from Cheshire 25 

15 Digesting apparatus— from Girard 26 

16 Nervous system— from Girard , 28 

17 Heart, and respiratory system— from Girard 29 

18 Sting-from Girard. .....,,, 34 



11 ILLUSTRATIONS. 

10 Queen bee 3S 

20 " cells in progress 43 

21 " stingof— from Girar 1 46 

22 " abdomen of— from "Illustrirte Bieueazsitunr " 62 

23 Workerbee 66 

24 Egg in the cell 69 

25 Brood in all stages— from Givard 70 

26 Coiled in the cell —from '•L'Apicoltura in Italia" 70 

27 Stretched in the cell " " « « 71 

28 Transformations in sealed cells " " " 71 

29 Spinning the cocoon " " " 72 

30 Comparative size of ovaries— from Girard 75 

31 Drone 79 

32 " organs of— from Girard 82 

33 Drone-trap - from ' ' The Bee-keepers' Handy Book " 84 

34 Wax Scales 89 

35 Secretion of wax scales— from ' ' Illustrirte Bienenzeitung " 90 

36 Wax-producing organ -from Girard 90 

37 Bees hanging in chains— from " L'Apicoltura in Italia " 92 

38 " «« v " '« " " " 92 

39 The slope of the cells " " " 97 

40 Comb '. 98 

41 Fuschia 112 

42 Field apiary— from Gravenhorst 115 

43 Scrophulnria Nodosa - from Cheshire 124 

44 Water supply bottle— from ' ' L' Apicoltnra in Italia " 128 

45 Earthen hives— from "L'Apicoltore" 129 

46 Straw hive with cap— from Hamet 130 

47 Box " " •* " «« 130 

4S Straw Eke hive " " 131 

49 Radovan. Eke hive •* " 131 

50 Soria " " " ' 132 

51 Dividing hive " " 132 

52 Divers movable top bars 137 

53 Huber leaf hive 139 

54 Original Langstroth hive 141 

55 BeTlepsch hive— from ' ' Illustrirte Bienenzeitung '' 143 

56 First improvement of Langstroth hive 144 

57 Gravenhorst hive— from ' ' Illustrirte Bienenzei ung " 146 

58 Old standard Langstroth frame \ 146 

59 Diagram of principal frames— from ' ' The A B C of Bee-Culture "... 147 
a) ' ' of Gallup and Langstroth hives-from ' ' The AB C of Bee- 
Culture 149 

61 Mehring stamp 154 

62 Metal corners— from ' ' The A B C of Bee Culture " 156 

6> Langstroth hive "with glass 157 

6 1 Van Deusen clamp— from ' ' The A B C of Bee Culture " 15S 

65 Hive with super 159 

66 Two-story Langstroth simplicity hive— from "The A B C of Bee- 

Culture' ' 161 



ILLUSTRATIONS. , 111 

67 Entrance blocks 161 

68 Diagram of our hive 103 

63 Our hive, open 164 

70 " setting flat on the "bottom 165 

71 Rabbet and frame shoulder 166 

72 Hive, showing spacing whre 167 

73, 71 /Tool to make spacing wire 168 

75 Division board 169 

76 Heddon honey board— from ' ' The A B C of Bee Culture' ' 171 

77 Frame to make straw mats 171 

78 Blanton hive— from C. F. Muth 172 

79 How boards warp— from ' ' The A B C of Bee Culture" 175 

80 01 serving hive— from ' ' The Bee-keepers' Handy Book' ' 183 

81 Bin .Lham smoker 188 

82 Math " 188 

8 3 , 8 1 , Veils 101 

85 Comb basket— from ' ' The A B C of Bee Culture " 198 

85 Natural swarming 207 

87 Swarm sack— from ' 'Bees and Honey " 219 

88 Non-swarmer block : 237 

89 Queen cell removed 264 

91 Inserting queen cells— from Gravenhorst 265 

91 Cluster of cells -from ' ' The Bee keepers' Handy Book " 265 

92 Queencells 266 

93 Divisible frame 267 

91 (bis) . 93 (bis) . 94 Alley's method of queen -rearing— from ' ' The Bee- 
keepers' Handy Book " 271 

95 Abdomen of the Italian bee - from ' ' The ABC of Bee Culture " 285 

90 Ornamental Langstroth hive 292 

97 " " " back view 293 

98 House apiary— from the ' ' Revue Internationale ' ' 294 

99 Win low screen 305 

100 Benton cage— from ' ' The Illustrirte Bienenzeitxing " 312 

101 Box for shipping bees— from ' ' The A B C of Bee Culture " 315 

102 Can feeder 319 

103 Root fee ler— from ' ' The A B C of Bee Culture " 320 

104 Common hives protected by straw— from Hamet 334 

105 Two-story, double walled Langstroth hive 339 

106 " •• " '' " inside 340 

107 Double -wall Cowan hive— from Cheshire 341 

108 Che-hire hive— from Cheshire 342 

109 Outside covering for hiv^s 343 

110, ill Cellar blinds 347, 348 

112, 113, 114, Bee clamp for wintering 351 

115 Original Root mill— from ' ' The A B C of Bee Culture' ' 368 

116 Dunham MU1— from Mrs Dunham 370 

117 Vandervoort mill— from J. Vandervoort 371 

118 Foundation fastened to a triangular bar— from ' ' Bees an 1 Honey " . . 374 

119 Hambaugh roller 375 

120 Imbedding spur 376 



IV ILLUSTRATIONS. 



121 Blossomof tulip tree 379 

122 Locust blossom 380 

133 Whiteclover c8l 

124 Red " 382 

125 Linden 383 

126 Alsike clover— from ' ' Bees and Honey " 383 

127 Yellow melilot— from ' ' L' Apicoltore " 385 

128 Chamomile 386 

129 Golden rod 386 

130 Aster roseus 387 

131 Aster tradescant 387 

132 Echinops ritro = , 3S7 

133 Helenium tenuifolium 3S7 

134 Judas tree— from " L ' Apicoltore " 388 

135 Honey locust 389 

136 White melilot 389 

137 Cleome pungens 389 

138 Ground Ivy 389 

139 Sa-e 390 

140 Mint 390 

141 Knot weed 390 

142 Cherry blossoms 390 

143 Borage— from " L' Apicoltore " 391 

144 Veronica officinalis 391 

145 Asclepias tuberosa 392 

146 " Syriaca 39i 

147 Pollen of milk weed— from ' ' The A B C of Bee Culture " 392 

148 Rape : 393 

149 Black mustard 393 

150 Cowberry 394 

151 Valerian 394 

152 Enothera Grandiflora 394 

153 Epilobium Spicatum 394 

154 Lily 395 

155 Hyacinth 395 

156 Lily of the valley 395 

157 Solomon's seal 395 

158 Cotton . . 396 

159 Melon 396 

160 Fennel 397 

161 Pink 397 

162 Plantain 397 

163 Barberry 397 

164 Mignonette 398 

165 Willow— male blossom 398 

166 Willow— female blossom 398 

167 Oak— male blossom 399 

168 Hazelnut— male blossom 399 

169 One piece section— from ' Bees and Honey 'S 411 

170 Miller crate— from ' ' Gleanings in Bee Culture " 411 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



171 Full depth section frame— from ' ' Bees and Honey ' ' 412 

172 Slope of the cells when inverted— from " L'Apicoltura in Italia"... 413 

173 Shuck reversible hive — from J. M. Shuck 414 

174 Heddon " " " Cheshire 415 

175 Perforated zinc— from ' ' Gleanings ' ' 418 

176 Open sections— from ' ' How to Eaise Comb Honey' ' 423 

177 Foster crate " ' ' " " 424 

178 Two half-story supers for extracting 432 

179 Novice extractor— from ' ' The ABCof Bee Culture " 438 

180 Dadant capping can 439 

181 Muth honey knife from C. F. Muth. , 440 

182 ' « extractor " " 440 

183 Excelsior extractor— from ' ' Bees and Honey " 440 

184 Bingham knife— from T. F. Bingham 441 

1S5 Stanley automatic extractor —from E . R. Newcomb 442 

186 Appearance of foul-brood— from ' 'The British Bee-Keeper's Guide" 448 

187 Bertrand fumigator— from ' ' La Conduite du Rucher' ' 452 

188 Bee moth 458 

189 " female 459 

190 " male 459 

191 Galleries of bee-moth 461 

192 Worms of " 461 

193 Cocoons of " 463 

194 Webs of " 465 

195 Two-tier honey crate 478 

196 Honey pails 4S8 

197 Wax sun extractor 500 



[The engravings of plants whose original is not indicated, came from Messrs. 
J. B. Bailliere et Fils, and Vilmorin Andrieux et Cie of Paris.] 



INDEX. 



Absconding swarms 22? 

Adobe for hives 174 

Adulteration, of beeswax 372 

" of honey 484 

Afterswarming 226 

Afterswarms, prevention of 237 

' ' superiority of 228 

« objections to 228-229 

Age of the queen when fecundated. . 51 

" sign of old, in bees 79 

Air, see Ventilation 176 

Alley, drone trap. 81 

" mailing queens 311 

' ' method of queen-rearing. 265-270 

" on impregnation 51 

Alighting-board, see Apron 

Alluring swarms 213 

Alsike clover 383 

American frames, dimensions of 

147-152 

Ammonia for stings . 203 

Anger of bees 185 

Antennae 6 

" bees cannot live without 14 

* • cutting of the 14 

" as organs of hearing 10 

" as organs of smelling 11 

" experiments of Huber on the, 9 

Ants about the hive 476 

' ' fondness for honey 478 

' ' their fecundity 39 

Aphides, Parthenogenesis of the 59 

' ' causes of honey dew 114 

Apiaries, covered 293 

' ' out of doors 295 

1 ' sheds for 295 

Apiary 291 

" slow motions around the 193 

Apifnge 189 

Apis dorsata 289 

Apis fasclata 288 

Apis ligustica 283 

Apis mellifica 282 

Apron, or alighting-board 165 

Aristotle, on drones 84 

' ' on eggs 58 

" on foul-brood 458 

" on fruit 18 

" on Italian bees 281 

" on pollen 122 

" on robber-bees 359 

" on scent of the queen 279 

' * on strong odors .,,,,, 201 



Artificial swarming 238 

advices on 247 

caution about 250 

by dividing 239 

'* by driving bees. .241 

by removing the 

tc hive. .240 

in cold weather. .248 

" improved 243 

nucleus method.. 245 
with queens al- 
ready reared 244 
with queen cells.. 246 
increasing too 

«.-■•. .fast.... 250 

Atoms, their size 12 

Australian bees ...'.'.'.'.'.'. .289 

Austria, yield of honey .!!!".".!".! .403 

Automatic extractor ...442 

Axioms, bee-keepers' !..."!." 520 

Bacillus alvei, see foul-brood 

Bait, in sections 416 

Baldenstein, on Italian bees. ...... ..286 

Balled queens 275 

Bar-hives jgj ' 137 '239 

Barnyard fowls 474 

Barrels for honey ..."!.!!!! .480 

Basswood, see Linden 

Batchelder §4 

Beard, on comb honey ".*.*.'. .'.'.'. ".'.417 

" on wintering .'!!336 

Bears and bees .475 

Beauuier on the production of wax." . 94 
Bee-bread, see pollen 

Bee dress 190,192 

Bee-hat 190, 191 

Bee-keepers' calendar 510 

Bee moth 453 

" description of !..459 

" food of 462 

" galleries of 460,461 

' * how they act 459, 462 

" in queeuless colonies 468 

" Italian bees and 467 

" killed by cold 464 

" not to be feared 470 

" preserving comb, against.. 466 
" temperature required for 

their growth.. 464 

" wormofthe 461 

' " their disgusting work 465 

Bees, and flowers 124, 125, 509 

' ' and fruits , 18. 505 



II 



INDEX. 



Bees angered 196 

44 " by bad odors 201 

44 " by the odor of their 

poison 202 

44 " by the jarring of the 

hive 196 

' ' as means of defense 205 

" bewildered by light 195 

" building combs 89 

" building few store cells 103 

44 building a third store cells 104 

" build'g store cells here and 

there.. 104 

• * climbing on polished surfaces. . 21 

" clustering in winter 326 

44 clustering outside 160, 179 

' ' deprived of their antennae 14 

• ' deserting 207, 349, 355 

" discharge in flight 31 

1 ' do not make honey Ill, 322 

44 dwindling in spring 352 

" eating to keep warm 327 

" eves of 4 

4 ' filled with honey 186 

44 first introduced in this country282 
44 first noticed in Florida . 280 

* • for honey production in the 

North.. 313 

44 going Westward • .280 

44 guided by instinct in building. 108 

' * handling 185 

44 hearing organs of 9 

" Holy Land and Syrian 289 

' < how far lhey fly 400 

" how many in a pound 312 

41 in California 403 

44 in Germany 403 

1 ' injured by fruit juice 508 

4 ' killing their drones 85 

44 memory of 13 

44 motions in Winter 326 

44 moulh of 15 

" noticing their new location 314 

' ' not indigenous to America 280 

44 on boats 308 

44 our models 179 

" peaceable when filled with 

honey. .186 

' ' peaceable when swarming 186 

* * preparing to swarm 206 

' ' procuring 296 

1 ' propolizing small holes 107 

4 ' quiet at mid-day 19 J 

• 4 races of 280 

44 rebuilding store cells 104 

44 removing from the cellar .350 

' « return to their location 268, 314. 350 

44 sending scouts 212 

44 sent to better pastures 309 

44 smelling organs of ]l 

4 ' starving in Spring 317 

44 suffocated 178 

44 swarming 211 

" swarming with introduced 

queen. .278 

44 transferring ...297 

44 unable to take wing 30 



Bees understand each other 76 

' ' varieties 281 

' ' working as soon as hived 224 

Bee=wax 49g 

' ' for comb-foundation 371 

" melting 499 

" pressing 499 

'• residues 500 

' ' uses of 501 

Bee-veil 190 

Beginners' mistakes 519 

' ' should be careful. . .250, 

2ft 1, 406 

Beginning on a small scale 291 

Bellemey on honey-dew 114 

Benton, mailing queens 311 

" trip io Cyprus 288 

44 to India 289 

Berlepsch experiments, note on 251 

44 on comb building 100 

' ' on parthenogenesis 58 

44 on refrigerating queens. . . 63 

44 on water in Winter.. 126, 354 

44 hive 142,143 

44 " defects of 144 

Bernard, on the brain of birds 14 

Bertrand, description of foul-brood 

448-449 

*' on Hilbert's cure 451,454 

44 44 honey as cure for 

warts. .497 

4 " Langstroth's hive 145 

" " queens dying of 

bacillus alvei..443 

44 size of hives 162 

Bevan, cure for beestings 203 

' • on bee-moths 460, 461 

4 4 honey-dew 116 

4 ' larva; 69, 71, 72 

4 ' propolis 106 

44 salt 128 

' 4 quotations of Huber 291 

44 " Re'anmur..l08, 182 

Bickford, first use of the oil-cloth 170 

Bingham, importation of meli- 

pones. .290 

44 knife 441 

4 4 on honey vinegar 495 

,4 smoker 188, 189 

44 uses a closed-end frame. .148 

Birds and bees 472 

' ' should not be killed 473 

" injuring fruit 507 

Bledsoe, on the sting 36-37 

Blocks for the entrance 161-165 

Blood of bees 29 

Boards, warping of 175 

Boerhaave on Swarmmerdam 38-39 

Bohemia honey production 403 

Boiling honey 478 

" " against foul brood 449 

" wax 499 

Boissier, on honey-dew 114 

Bonnier, on Darwin 6 

44 44 honey-dew 117 

44 44 Nectaries 117 

Bottom-boards 158 



INDEX. 



Ill 



Bottom-boards encased 164 

" movable 1(56 

Box-hives 130-131 

Brain of bees 15 

Braula cceca 475 

Braun, his test of a day's crop 434 

Breathing upon bees ,..196 

Breeding in and In 87 

Brimstoning bees 130 

' ' honey comb to keep out 

the moth.. 466-67 

Broad frames for sections 412 

" top burs for brood frames 156 

Brood accidentally killed 456 

casting the skin 70 

chamber in two stories 

objectionable. .149 

duration of developemcnt 88 

how fed 69 

pure air for 177 

sealed by bees 71 

transformation of the 72 

Brown on honey blossoms 387, 392 

Buckwheat honey 477 

Buera, on water for brood rearing. . .355 
Burmeister, names the stomach- 
mouth.. 26 
" discovers different sounds in 

the humming of bees.. 32 

Burnens as an observer 74 

" helped Huber « 8 

Butler's anecdote from 475 

" on drones 84 

«« on drone traps , 84 

•« on handling bees 192,194 

«* on the bee-sting 202 

" on sectional hives 132 

1 ' saw the queen deposit eggs . 38 

Cages, introducing 274 

" how to use 275 

' ' shipping 312 

Cakes 494 

California, crop of 404 

' ' honey, prices of 485 

Camm uses broad top bars 156 

Candied honey 481-482 

«' " how bees dissolve. .126 

" " melting 483 

Candy, for feeding 320 

" for shipping 312 

" making .320 

»« Scholz 321 

' ' shops, killing bees 325 

Cans, for honey 488 

Cap of the hive 172 

Capping can 440 

Cappings 498 

Cappings of honey cells, air-tight?. .118 

Carbolic acid for foul- brood 454 

Carbolized sheet 190 

Cares in Spring 356, 358 

Cary, on uniting colonies 335 

' ' witnessed the mating of a 

queen.. 53 
Castellaz, on preserving combs from 

the moth.. 467 
Catalogue of bee plants 385 



Catching the queen of a swarm 220 

' ' queens for shipment or intro- 
duction 275 

Causes of swarming 206,232 

Cellar blinds 347, 348 

" damp 346, 349 

" dark 349 

" dry 345 

1 ' removing bees from 350 

" temperature 316 

" ventilation 348 

• * wintering bees in 345 

Cells, accommodation.., 99 

« ' bottom of 95 

" drone 93, 102 

" natural explanation of the 

shape of. . 96 

' ' not horizontal 96, 97 

" opposed preference of queen 

and worker. .103 

• * queen 43, 264, 265, 266, 27 1 

" size of 97,98 

• * solution of a problem 95 

" thickness of 99 

•« worker 97, 98 

Chaff hives 341 

• ' defects of 342 

Chapman's echiuops 386 

Cheshire, book of 59 

' ' criticism of 12 

' ' his criticism of an engraving 99 

" hive 342 

'* " winter packing of 338 

' « mistake of 142 

" on air-tight cappings 118, 119 

1 ' on cure of foul-brood 453, 454 

" on diarrhea 445 

« « on foul brood 446, 447, 450 

" on how to suspend foundation 

in frames.. 376 

'« on the antenna? 7, 9,10,11,12 

" " blood 30 

" * • eyes 4 

" " feet 22 

" " glands 16 

" " larva? 70, 71, 72 

" " legs 23,24 

• « " pollen baskets 24 

" " skeleton of the bee 2 

" " survival of the fittest. .80, 81 

«« " tongue 20 

' ' on wax 89 

Chickens close hives in the evening. .471 

' ' eat drones 86, 474 

Chin of the bee 19 

Chitine 2 

Chloroform 276 

Christie's method of putting up 

honey. .489 

Clamps for wintering 350 

" Van Deusen's 158 

Claws andpulvilli 21 

Cleaning propolis from the hands . . .107 

Cleansing beeswax 500 

Clipping the wings of queens 220-221 

Cloth, oil or enameled 170 

Clover, alsike 383 



IV 



INDEX, 



Clover melilot or sweet 384 

" red 20,381 

" white 381 

Clover honey ........477 

Cluster 326 

Clustering swarms — 211 

Clute, uses the Gallup frame 148 

Cocoons of bees 71-72 

' ' of bee-moth 462, 463 

Cold climate for wintering 326 

" water for stings 203 

Collin, can bees hear ? 10 

" invention of perforated zinc. . 84 
" on duration of transformations 72 
" on how many bee-< in a pound. .313 

Colonies, artilicial increase of 238 

killed by heat 178, 179 

' ' natural increase of > . . . .206 

1 • number of, in an apiary 

302, 405 

" queenless 256, 260, 261, 468 

" removing 313 

1 ' shipping 307 

" strong, best for honey 408 

' ' transferring 297, 302 

" weak, easily robbed 364 

* ' yield from 406 

Color of the comb 97 

Colors as guide for bees 5, 6, 294, 295 

Columella, his writings 173 

' ' mentions the bee-moth 458 

" on artificial swarming 238 

" on feeding bees 317,319 

" on handling bees 194 

" on Italian bees 284 

" on spring examination of 

colonies... 356 

" on weak colonies 261 

Colvin importation of Italian bees. .287 

" invention of separators 417 

" on bees transferring eggs 44 

Combat of queens 49 

Comb bucket 198 

" building 89 

" foundation, advantages of 366 

" "a success , — 377 

• t " dipping 372 

" " Dunham 377 

" " flat bottom 369 

* * " for brood-combs 372 

" " fd' comb honey, 372 

" " for swarms 377 

" " how to cut 375 

" " how to fasten 374 

" " results of 360 

" ' c first manufacturer 367 

" "' in sections 374 

" " inventor of 367 

" " mills, Dunham 370 

" " " Root 370 

" " " Vandervort 370 

" " moulding 373 

" " plaster moulds for 370 

•« " press 369 

n «• right position 376 

" " wax for 371 

" *« weight of different 

grades. .374 



Comb Foundation wiring 375 

Comb guides for frames. . . .154, 155 217 

Comb honey, best selling 409 

" capping of 118 

" care in shipping 480 

" difficult to produce 412 

" leaking 479 

" moths in 467 

' ' production 409 

' ' by reversing.412 
" " -. improve- 

ments in.. 410 
" i{ in broad 

frames... 412 
'* "in crates 

411, 424 
" "in large 

frames. .410 
" "in lower 

story.. 411 
" "in sec- 
tions 410 

« '• In shallow 

upper stories. 411 
" " remarks on. 426 

" sweating ..478, 479 

" without pi-opolis 419 

' ' very attractive 4 9 

Combs 89 

age of 72, 224 

breaking down 179 

brimstoning to keep out moths 

466, 467 
care in returning after inspec- 
tion 199 

care of in Winter 444 

economy of bees in building... 99 

empty, furnishing to bees 435 

' ' given to prevent swarm- 
ing.. 234 

extracting from 436 

guides for straight 154, 366 

made of wax 80 

melting 499 

moths in 466 

pruning 130 

returned to the bees after ex- 
tracting 443 

straight 154 

surface occupied by brood 15g 

transferring 300 

washiug dark 498 

Comparative table of transforma- 
tions... SS 
Comparison of the eyes of queens, 

drones, and workers. . . 4 

Confectlonprs annoyed by bees 323 

Confining bees unsafe 178 

Confinement, fertilization in 53 

in cellar 345,347 

Constipation 353 

Consumption of honey 487 

•« " bv bees in 

"Winter.. 327, 328 

" of pollen 122 

Contagious diseases 446-456 

Contraction of brood chamber . .353, 416 
" " surplus apartment. .420 



INDEX. 



Cpok, his praise of the Langstroth 

hive.... 140 

" Lubbock's experiment 6 

" on enemies of bees 473 

" on Neighbour's opinion 51 

' ' on the broods of the moth 459 

' ' on the ears of bees 10, 11 

" on production of wax scales in 

old bees . . 91 

" quotation of Doolittle 254 

Cowan, automatic extractors 443 

•' in Italy 145 

" on foul-brood 448 

' ' on the prevention of swarming. 235 
" on the treatment of foul-brood 

452, 453, 454 
Cracks, closed with propolis by 

bees. .107 
' ' how to close when bees rob. . . 364 
Crates, see Section-crates 

Crops, average of 406 

" divers 444 

Cutting, H. D., on the introduction 

of virgin queens. .277 

Cyprian bees 289 

" difficult to subdue 1 93 

Debeauvoys 140 

Decoy hives 298 

Deep frames 159 

De Gelieu hive 132 

De Layens counted the eggs dropped 

by queens. . 64 
11 experiments on cost of 

wax.. 101 
" " the use of 

water. .127 
' ' report of weight of a 

swarm. .235 

Delia Rocca comb-guide 154 

" on age of colonies 77 

" on attracting swarms.. ..216 

**. on bees as means of de- 
fense,. 205 

" on floating apiaries 308 

Demaree introduction of virgin 

queens 278 

" queen nursey 272 

De Plauta, experiments on food of 

larva?. .253 
" " onhonev.,378 

Desertion 207, 252 

Diarrhaea 415 

Digesting apparatus 26 

Digestion, process of 27 

Disturbing bees in cold weather, . . . .339 

Dividing 239 

' ' unreliable 240 

Divisible frame 266 

Division boards 169 

" removing 197 

" spaceuuder 169 

Donhoff, description of moths. .465-466 
" experiments on young bees 

G6- 67-68 
'* on developement of moths 464 

*• on food of moths 462 

" on thickness of honey cells. 99 



Doolittle method of fastening found- 
ation 374 

' ' on propolis 419 

" on securing sealed honey.. 420 
" uses broad frames for sec- 
tions 421 

" uses side storage 411 

• ' "the Gallup frame 14S 

" "tin roofs 172 

Driving bees 241, 299 

Drone brood in worker cells 62 

Drone cells 98 

" bees building few 102 

Drone comb, bees building 103 

" rebuilt 104 

' ' removed 61 

• ' replaced by comb foun- 
dation 366 

4 ' scattered 104 

Drone eggs in drone cells 60-61 

' * larvae, bees trying to raise queen 

irom 57, 76 

" laying queens 56,59 

" laying workers 74 

" traps 84 

" det-cilption and office 79 

Drones, difficulty to raise early 62 

" expelled by bees 85 

' ' by the bee keeper 86 

" kept in queenless hives 261 

" mating in the air 80 

' ' number in a hive 82 

" perish in mating 81 

' ' raised in worker cells. ... .61 , 86 

1 ' selection of 262 

' ' time of appearance of 80 

41 why mating outside 86 

' ' "why so many 82 

Drumming bees 299 

Dubini on cleansing the antennae 23 

' * on commercial uses of propo. 

lis.. 109 

' ' on food of larvae 70 

" on the braula coeca 475 

" on the Caucasian bee 289 

" on the scales of wax 90 

Dunham mill ...370 

Dzierzon, discovery of parthenogen- 
esis 55, 58 

hive 138 

on cellar wintering,345, 346, 350 

on fertility of queens 64 

on pollen and substitute 

120, 122 
on refrigerating queens. . . . 62 

on robbers .359 

on the Italian bee 284, 287 

1 ' sex of eggs 60 

' ' spermatheca 5 { 

" wedding flight 51 

Eggs, are they laid in queen cells ?. . 44 

' ' drone and worker alik« 59 

" •' " " indifferent 

cells 60 

" from laying workers 74 

" how fecundated 54 

1 ' impregnation of 58 



VI 



INDEX. 



Eggs not better than larvae to rear 

queens 253 

" of the bee-moth 460 

4 ' number of, laid by queens 39 

" shallow frames hindering the 

laying of 148 

" shape of 69 

Empty combs to prevent swarming. .234 

• ' removed for Winter 331 

Enamel cloth 170 

Enemies of bees 458 

Entrance 169 

" blocks 160,165 

" contracted against robbing 

361, 364 
4 4 enlarged to hive swarms. . .218 

44 '• in Summer 159 

' ' left open in Winter. ....... .338 

Epitaph on bees 407 

Ether 276 

Evans, quotations from. . . ..77, 78, 80, 95 
106, 108, 116, 206, 316, 379 

Excessive swarming 231 

Excrements, see foeees 

Extracted honey 426 

" barrels for 480 

' ' granulation of 481 

sale of 490 

Extracting 441 

4 4 advantages of 429 

4 ' conclusions on 444 

44 from brood combs 440 

44 half stories for 432 

44 ho w to proceed 437 

44 implements for 487 

4 • lessens the work 431 

44 prevents swarming 432 

Extractor 428 

Eyes of bees 3 

4 ' comparison of 4 

Facets of the eye 4 

41 why eo many — ,... 5 

Famine, desertion by 207, 355 

Fear of stings 195 

Fecundation delayed, its results 59 

44 of flowers by bees 123 

44 of the queen 51 

Feeble colonies, feeding 317 

44 uniting ,..335 

44 unprofitable 408 

Fecundity not equal in every season. 40 

" of the queen 39 

Feeders 319 

Feeding bees 316 

' ' larvae compared with mam- 
mal feeding 27 

in the Fall 318 

44 in Spring 317 

• 4 loaf sugar 321 

4 , not to be encouraged 322 

44 Scholz candy 321 

* 4 sugar candy 320 

syrup 320 

44 swarms 224 

Fermentation of honey 483 

Fertility of the queen, see fecundity 39 
Filing saws 175 



Flight during Winter 350 

Flight of bees, range of 400 

44 4 ' speed of 25 

Floating apiaries 309 

Flour given to bees , 122 

Flowers, bees not injurious to.. 123, 5(9 

list of honey 385 

Fceces of bees, discharge of the 28 

' 4 discharge in the hive 329 

' 4 unhealthy 445 

" of the queen , 17 

44 of young bees 69 

Food, bee's Ill 

4 4 for wintering 329, 330 

4 ' how much for Winter 327 

44 its effects on queen larvae 45 

44 4 ' on worker larvae. ... 74 

44 best to ship bees 310 

Forcing box 297 

Foster case 424 

' ' open side sections 423-425 

s4 shipping directions. 479 

Foul-brood 446 

44 care and perseverance 

needed 454 

4 ' detected in Spring 448 

4 4 description of 447 

44 Dupont experiments 417 

4 4 from infected queens 445 

44 fumigating . 451 

4 4 method of Bert rand 451 

"of Cheshire.. 453 

44 44 ofJones 449 

44 44 of Muth 450 

Foundation, see comb foundation 

Frame of the bodies of insects 3 

Frames 147, 155, 163 

44 comparison of divers sizes 151, 152 
4 4 considerations on the size of. . .148 

44 distance between 153 

4 ' divisible 266 

44 first attempts at movable 140 

4t Langstroth 155 

44 " simplicity 156 

4 4 number per hive 151 

44 perpendicular to the entrance. 157 
44 regularity of the outside meas- 
ure of 156 

4 4 removing from the hives 197 

4 4 space around 168 

4 4 spacing wire for 168 

44 success with every kind of 152 

4 4 tin corners for 156 

4 4 top and bottom bars of 155 

44 triangular edge 154 

4 4 width of the top bar 156 

Fruits and bees 18, 595 

44 blooms benefited by bees.. .123-125 

44 damaged by birds 507 

44 juices of, injurious to bees, 330, 508 

Fumigations against foul-brood 451 

44 44 moths 466, 467 

44 44 to tame bees ...187 

Gallup frame 148, 149 

41 dimensions of the 147 

Gelieu vertical, divisible hive 132 

German hive, inferiority of 149 



INDEX. 



VII 



Gingerbread 493, 494 

Girard on honey Ill 

' ' on the breathing organs 31 

* ' " eyes 5 

" " glands 16 

" " nervous system. 29 

" " smell organs 13 

' * " sounds produced by 

bees.. 32 

" *' sting 34 

Given , foundation press 369 

Glands of bees 15 

" feeding the queen 16 

Gloves 192 

Goldsmith, quotation from 184 

Granulation of honey 481, 486 

" coarse 482 

Grapes and bees 505 

Gravenhorst hive 145 

Green on foul-brood 447-48 

Grimshaw's apifuge 189 

Gubler on cure for bee-stings . . .204 

Gundelach on the necessity of pollen, 120 

Hairless bees 445 

Hairs of bees 3 

" as organs of touch 6 

" their uses on the legs.. 22 

Hambaugh on out-apiaries 303 

" roller 375 

Hamet, his description of the mov- 
able frame hive 133 

" on several swarms clustered 

together. .221, 222 

Handling bees 185 

Harris on moths 458, 460 

Harvesting honey 436 

Hay hurst on queen nurseries 272 

Hearing of bees 9 

4 ' organs, where located 10 

Heart of bees 29 

Heat breaking the combs 178, 179 

Heddon hive 140, 415 

honeyboard 170, 421 

" method of transferring 303 

" on clipping queens' wings. 221 

" color of veils 191 

" comb honey... 417, 418, 422 

" economical production. 436 

' ' location 405 

" prevention of after- 

swarms. .237 

" the use of smoke 186 

" union of beekeepers 509 

' ' wintering safely 334 

* * uses wooden feeders 319 

Hetherington uses closed end 

frames. .148 

Hilbert on foul-brood 450, 454 

History of bee-keeping 407 

Hives, African 129 

" American 147,148 

" Berlepsch 143 

11 Box 130 

" bottom-board of 164 

* ' cap of 172 

" chaff 341 

" diagram of our 163 



Hives division -board of 169 

' ' double-back 166 

' ' double wall 341 

" Dzierzon 137 

11 Earthen 129 

" Eke 131 

' ' enamel cloth for 170 

' ' entrance of 169 

•■« Gelieu 132 

" Gravenhorst 146 

' ' hanging frame 147 

" Heddon 140,415 

" Huber 139 

' ' Laugstroth 141, 144 

" *' simplicity 161 

" large may be reduced 153 

" " to improve the races 153 

' ' material for 173 

" movable comb 137 

" " frame 139 

* ' numbering 173 

" observing 181 

" our test of sizes of 153 

' ' outer covering of 343, 344 

' ' painting 172 

" patent 173 

' ' preferred bv as 162 

" protection for 336 

" Q.uinby closed end frame 139 

" " suspended frame 147 

" Eadouan 131,132 

' • ready for swarms 215 

«' requisites of a complete 133 

• « roof of 235 

" Shuck 414 

44 slanting forward 157 

" small, cause excessive swarm- 
ing.. 153 

" " limit thelaying 152 

" Soria 132 

' ' spacing wire of 168 

' * straw mat for .171 

" strip on, to widen the projec- 
tion 170 

' ' upper story of 172 

' ' ventilation of 158, 176 

' • Winter cover of 343 

•' " packing of. 33S 

" " shelter of 336 

Hiving swarms 214 

Holy Land bees 289 

Honey, adulteration of 484-485 

' ' as food 402 

•' " for bees Ill 

" as medicine 49K 

" board discarded 158 

' ' cakes 494 

" cells, are they air tight? 118 

" comb for swarms 216 

* ' crop in California 403 

" " Germany 4n3 

" " this country 404 

" " our largest ..435 

'.' dew 113 

'• " as seen by Knight 115 

" •' from aphides 114 

" '* its looks 116 



VIII 



INDEX. 



Honey dew, origin of 116 

' ' different grades of 477 

' ' extracted 426 

« ' extractor 428-439 

" fermenting 483 

• ■ from clover 381-383 

" " divers flowers 384 

" " hollow trees, 427 

11 " linden 382 

" granulating 481 

' ' harvesting 436 

' ' house 304 

" " implements 439 

'.* in sections 410 

' • marketing 477 

" production 407 

1 ' sack 26 

' ' storing and evaporating ... .118 

" strained 427 

' ' uses of 492 

" vinegar 495 

Horse killed by bees 201 

Hour of the fecundation of queens. . 52 

' ' of swarming 209 

Hruschka 428 

Huber, experiments on comb-build- 
ing. .99, 100 

" " pollen 119,120 

" " propolis 106 

" the antennae 9, 13, 14 

1 ' " the memory of 

bees 13 

«' «« the sense of smell,201 

' * " ventilation 177 

" " virgin queens. .48, 49 

11 hive 139 

" on artificial swarming 239 

' ' bees transporting eggs. .44, 45 

fertile workers 76 

' ' how bees build their 

combs. .376 
" on the impregnation of queens 

51, 53, 55, 81 
'• the introduction of 

queens. .274 

* * the tal ents of Burn ens 74 

•' worker bees , 66 

" tribute to 7 8,9, 

" was blind 8 

" wife of 8 

Humming 31 

Hutchinson lamp nursery 272 

' ' on comb honey production 

418, 426 

" packing comb-honey 480 

Implements, see Tools. 

Importing bees 2S6, 288, 310, 311 

Impregnation of the queen 51 

Increasing too fast 250 

Inhabitants of a hive 2 

Insects and bees 476 

Intelligence of insects 37 

Introducing queens 274 

Invertible hives 414-415 

Irving, quotation from 281 

Italian bees 2S3 

" description of 284 



Italian Bees, first importation in 

America 287 

" qualities of 283 

' ' vary even in Italy 286 

Italian cakes 494 

Jarring combs, anger bees 196 

Jefferson, quotation of 280 

Johnson on the moth 469 

Jones, cure of foul- brood 449 

' ' importer of bees 288 

' ' on number of queen cells 44 

Kirby and Spence 114 

Kirtland on transferring 301 

Knives for uncapping 439, 441 

Labial palpi and maxillae 19 

Landois on the humming 25-32 

Language of bees 32 

Larvae casting the skin 70 

" duration of development 72 

' ' fed from the glands of workers. 27 

11 how fed 69 

* • of queens copiously fed 45 

Laying of eggs 63 

" " hindered by shallow 

frames 148 

" of two queens in the same 

hive 50 

' ' workers 74 

*• " how to get rid of 76 

Leakage of honey 489 

Legs of bees 21 

" covered with hairs 22 

notches of the first pair 22 

pollen baskets of the 24 

posterior 23 

second pair 23 

Leidy, dissections of queens 54, 56, 57, 81 

Lew on mating 52,53 

Light in the cellar 346-347 

" on bees 195 

Longfellow, quotation from 2X0 

Loosening the frames 197 

Loss of bees by heat 179 

' ' the queen 256 

" " sting 35 

Love of the workers for the 

queen. .41, 311 

Lungs of bees 30 

MacCord on hive covers 172 

MacLain on bees and fruits .507 

" statistics from 404 

Magnetizing bees 190 

Mahan, experiments on drones 83 

" " •* queenless 

colonics. ..260 
" " " refrigerating 

queens 63 

" imported Italian bees 287 

Mailing queens 311 

Malpighian tubes 2s 

Mandibles of bees 18 

Matiura clamps 422 423 

' ' on the control of swarming. .432 

Mats 171 

Material for hives 173 

Mating of the queen 5i 



INDEX. 



IX 



Mehring, inventor of comb foun- 
dation 267 

" stamp for securing straight 

combs 154 

Melipones 290 

Melting honey 483 

' ' wax 499 

Memory oi bees 14, 350 

Metatarsus of bees 22 

Mice in bee hives 472 

Miller on baits in sections 416 

" foundation starters 420, 421 

" number of colonies in one 

location. .405 

robber cloths 437 

" scraping propolis from sec- 
tions.. 419 

" " section crates 422 

" " time of removal of bees from 
cellar ..511 
Mills on painting hives different 

colors.. 295 

Mismanagement of bees 200 

Mistakes of beginners 519 

Mixing bees from different hives249, 436 

More on honey 492 

Mouth of bees 15-19 

Movable comb hives 137 

1 • frame hives, first attempts 

at.. 140 
" frame standard Langstroth 155 

• ' different styles of 147 

Munn hive 140, 185 

Muth honey cake 495 

" location 291 

* « foul-brood method 450-451 

" on ripening honey .483 

" straw mats 171 

Natural swarming 206 

" and selection 231 

" uncertainty of 238 

Nectar, best condition to produce. . .113 

" changed to honey Ill 

" conlains moreorless waterlll 
" exists in different parts of 

the plant.. 113 

• ' extrafloral 113 

" in deep corollas 117 

' • reabsorbed by plants 112 

" storing and evaporating 118 

4 ' yields of, vary greatly. 112, 378 

Nervous system in bees 29 

Newman kegs for honey 480 

" on uses of honey. .492, 493, 497 

Norton on out-door wintering 344 

Notch of the first pair of legs 22 

Nucleus 266 

" for artificial swarming 245 

" how made 267 

" prepared in advance 269 

' ' strong 268 

Numbering the hives 173 

Nursing glands of workers 15 

Nurses 66, 69 

Observing glass of the Langstroth 

hive.. 157 



Observing hives 181 

" for pleasure and 

instruction. .183 

" in apartments 182 

" necessary to study 

bees. .182 

Ocelli of bees 5 

Odor of the poison of bees 36 

Oettl, golden rule 521 

" on honey yield 402, 403 

' ' on the language of bees 32, 33 

" straw hive 132 

Oil cloth 170 

Old age, signs of, in bees 79 

Old and young queens living togethei 50 

Old bee-keepers venom-proof 204 

Old, how old is a queen when impreg- 
nated . . 51 

Old precepts 194 

Olfactory organs 11 

" Girard experiments on 13 

' ' lead bees to flowers 13 

Olm mills 370 

Opening hives 197 

Orphan bees raisingqueens 47 

Otis saw impregnation 53 

Out-apiaries, why 302 

' ' conditions required for 303 

'"' how many ? 304 

" our terms for 304 

Outer-boxes for wintering 344 

Out of doors wintering 333 

Ovaries of a drone-laying queen 57 

4 ' of the queen 54-55 

' ' of workers 74- 75 

Overbeck, discovery of origin of 

wax . . 93 

Overstocking 400 

' ' opinions on 405 

Packard on the breathing organs 30 

" " instinct of bees 37 

Pain d'epices 493 

Painting hives i72 

" " different colors 295 

Paley on the sting 35 

Palieau hive 132 

Palpi and maxillae 19 

Paraffine, melting point of 371 

Parsons importation 287 

Parthenogenesis 56 

" proven by Italian 

bees . . 57 

Pasteur on breeding bacilli 447 

' ' on inoculation 205 

Pasturage for bees 378 

Patents 173 

Perforated zinc 84, 418 

Piping of the queen 49,227 

Poison of the sting 202 

" sack 33 

Pollen 119 

" baskets 24 

" combs 24 

' ' fresh preferred 121 

' ' gathering, useful to plants 123 

" indispensable to bees 120 

' ' substitutes 122 



INDEX. 



Pollen used when bees make combs. 99 

Portico 160, 344 

Pound, how many bees in one 312 

Prevention of afters warms 237 

" moths i a combs. ..466, 471 

• ' robbing 363 

" swarming 229 

Production of honey 407 

" " improved 

methods.. 408 

Propolis 1' 5 

hard in Winter 107 

how to clean from the 

hands. .107 

on sections 419 

soils the comb , 107 

uses for bees 106 

" in commerce 109 

Pnlvilli 52, 53 

Queen, agp at fecundation 51 

balled 222-275 

beginning to lay 63 

best conditions to raise 255 

cages 274 

clipping wings of 221 

contents of spermatheca of. . . 54 
dejections, licked by 

workers.. 16, 17 

description of 40 

destitute of nursing glands.. 15 
difference in prolificness of... 64 

does not govern 39 

duration of development of. . . 47 
" " transformations 

of.. 88 

Dzierzons' discovery on 55 

entering the wrong hive .. .257 

fecundity of 39 

fed by the workers 16 

fighting of 49 

growth of, delayed 254 

how raised 253 

how her eggs are fecundated. 53 

•* she lays 63 

" to find a 278 

' ' to cage 275 

importation 310 

impregnation of eggs 58 

" " the queen. 51 

impregnation of the queen 

delayed. . 59 
impregnation of the queen 

for life.. 53 
impregnation of the queen 

in confinement. . 53 
introduction of impregnated. 274 

" " virgin 277 

knowing the sex of her eggs. . 60 

last to die 311 

laying drones in worker 

cells.. 56, 62 

" in queen cells 44 

' ' worker eggs in drone 

cells.. 61 

lays more in Spring 40 

longevity of 65 

loss of the 41, 256 



Queen lost in her wedding trip. 257 

" love of bees for the 41 

' ' mailing 311 

•' ma iug 51 

" missing 210, 259 

" odor of the 278 

" old 65 

' ' ovaries of 55 

' "a drone-laying 55 

' ' parthenogenesis of the 56, 58 

'* preference for worker cells 

61, 103 

' ' prisoner in the hive 275 

' ' reared from eggs 45, 263 

" " old larvae 47,254 

" " in the South 313 

" rearing 43, 253 

' ' refrigerated 62 

" shipping 310 

" " bymail 311 

" traps 236 

•' unable to fly 256 

*' virgin 47 

' • why not impregnated in the 

hive.. 86 

" young, confined by Huber 55 

Queen-cells, destroyed 48 

" for artificial swarm- 

ing. .246 

* ' how reared 43 

" "to transfer 264 

• • large number of 44, 264 

" preparing for 263 

Queenless colonies destroyed by 

moths. .468 
" " do not kill their 

drones. .261 

•■ * ' how detected 260 

Queens several in a swarm 228 

' ' two in a hive 5H 

*' " in a swarm 222 

Quinby closed ends hive 139 

" frames, size of. ..147, 152, 157, 163 

*• " number of 152 

" " superiority of 150-151 

" on bees damaged by moths. ..471 
•* " distances between frames. 153 

" " robbing 363 

" " shape of frames 150 

" smoker 189 

Rabbet 166, 167 

• 4 enlargement of top edge 170 

Races of bees 280 

Racine on old combs 224 

' ' " swarming 2 ;i 

Radouan hive 132 

Rapping 299 

Raynor, carbolized sheet 190 

Rearing queens 43,253 

" " from ego-s 263 

' ' " improved races 262 
" " in moderate colo- 

nies. .263 

Reid on the shape of the cells 95-96 

Remedies for foul -brood 449 

for stings 202 

Removing frames 197 



INDEX. 



XI 



Reversible hives 414-415 

Reversing 412 

Rinsing bells to stop swarms 210 

Ripening h >ney artificially 436, 483 

Robber bees 358 

acting like young bees. . 74 

Robber cloth 437 

Robbing, danger of, after cellar win- 
tering.. 350 

' ' difficult to detect 358 

" how to detect. 360 

11 to stop 361 

4 ' prevention of 363 

* ' promoted by the bee- 
keeper.. 360 

" secret 363 

' ' stopped by a carbolized 

sheet. .363 

1 • by exchanging hives 362 

A. I Root (Novice) "chaff-hive 342 

•' " on adulteration. .485 

" " " candy- 

making.. 320 
«« «« " comb- 

building. .92, 95 
" '« " extracting ...429 

" " " feeding bees. .319 

" " " foundation- 

machines. 368, 370 
" " " hive-making.. 175 

" " " Italian bees 

285, 288 
'* " " queen -laying in 

drone comb. . 61 
11 ** " shipping bees. 307 

by the pound. .312, 314 

' ' " on T supers 422 

" " " tin corners. . .156 

L. C. Root, author of Quinby's New 

Bee-keeping. . . .139, 471 
" uses closed-end frames. 148 

Royal jelly 16, 45, 253 

Russia, wintering in 326, 345 

Sack for hiving swarms 219 

Salivary glands 15-16 

Salt for bees .". . 128 

Sartori & Rauschenfels, honey-cake.. 495 
*' " on comb- 

building. . 91 

Sashes for windows 305 

Saunier experiment on brood 73 

Savage observing hive 182 

Scales of wax 90 

Schiemenz describes the stomach . 

mouth.. 26 
Schirach discovery of the origin of 

the queen 47 

Scholz candy 321 

•• material for hives 174 

Schonfeld on the chyle 27 

Scouts 212 

' ' returning 215 

Screen 305 

Scudamore on swarm 222, 238 

Sealed honey for extracting 435 

" " in sections 419 



Sealed queen cells 266 

Sealing of comb 118 

Sectional hives 131, 415 

Sections 410, 411 

" bro d frames for 412,421 

' ' crates 422 

" Foster 423 

" Miller 411, 422 

" propolizing 419 

' ' removing 425 

" securing straight combs in. .417 

Selection in bees 231 , 256, 262 

Selling honey 490 

" bees 313 

Separate stands 293 

Separators ,.,417 

Shade 235 

Shakespeare 322 

Shaking the bees like seeds 30-31-223 

Shearman on honey dew 114 

Sheds 293, 295 

Shipping bees 307-308 

" " to better pasture 309 

" queens 310 

" " by mail 311 

" " food for 310 

" «.' from Italy 310 

Shuck hive 414 

' ' on inverting 413 

Siebold, his opinion of the "Ber- 

lepsch " hive. .142 

" on parthenogenesis 54, 58 

Simmins' method of introducing 

queens. .276 
" non-swarming system. ...232 

Simplicity frame 147, 156 

Size of frames 147-148 

" of our hive 163 

Skeleton of insect 2 

Slanting apron-board 165 

Slow motions around bees. 193 

Smelling organs 11 

" " direct bees to 

flowers.. 13 
" " Girard experiments 

on.. 13 

" '* very acute 13 

Smoke helping robbers 196 

Smokers 188 

Smoking bees 187 

" not always necessary 192 

Snails propolized 107 

Soria space hive 132 

Sour honey 483 

Space around the frames 168 

" under division board 169 

Spaces between brood stories 149 

Spacing wire 168 

Sparrows and bees '..472 

Spine of the second pair of legs 23 

Spinola on the Italian bees 2S3, 284 

Spiracles of the lungs of bees 30 

Spring dwindling 352 

" feeding 317 

Sprouleon foul brood 454 

Square frames 150 

Stahala on the language of bees 33 



XII 



Stanley extractor 442 

Standard frame preventing progress. 145 

' ' Laugstroth frame 155 

Starvation 317 

Statistics 403, 404 

Storing honey 4u2 

Straight combs 154,217,224, 366 

Strained honey . .427 

Straw hives 130-131 , 174 

' ' for protection 336 

' ' mat 171 

Stupefying bees '276 

Sturtevant 338 

Suffocation 178 

Sugar candy 320 

" loaf 321 

" syrup 320 

Superiority of afterswarms 228 

" of artificial swarming.. .238 

* ' of extracted honey pro- 

duction.. .429 
" of the Langstroth hive.. 144 

Quinby frames. .150 

Sting 33 

" bees living without , 36 

' ' can wound after removal 36 

« « effects of the 202 

" fear of the 195 

•' left in the wound 37 

1 ' not easily withdrawn by the 

bee.. 34 
•' remedies for the wounds of the.. 202 

Stomach 26 

Stone on safe wintering 334 

Store cells 102 

" bees building few , 103 

Stories, defects of full upper 433 

" half, for extracting 432 

" surplus equalizing in 

upper. .436 

Supers foi'comb honey 411, 412 

' ' for extracted honey 432 

Superstition 109 

Swammerdam 38, 182 

on the moth 458, 461 

" " ovaries 54 

" tribute to 15 

Swarmingj artificial 238 

" fever 233 

" natural 206 

' ' causes of 232 

" " excessive 281 

' ' preparations for. .209 

" " out of season 207 

' " prevention of 229 

" " stimulated 233 

by 

small hives, 153, 432 
" " when raising 

comb honey. 236, 418 
" with a virgin queen. 226,227 

without a queen 210 

' ' with several queens 228 

Swarms absconding 22 

' ' catching the queen of 220 

' ' comb guides for 217 



Swarms easily handled 186 

' * feeding 224 

" first 2()9 

" hived with cmb honey 216 

" " on comb-foundation.. .217 

" hiving 214 

" loss of 231 

" mixing 221 

" on a small limb 218 

" on a trunk 220 

' ' primary .209 

" " with a young queen. 225 

" sackfor 219 

" secondary 226 

" selecting an alighting place. 213 
' ' several hived toge.her. .222, 231 

thiid 229 

" transporting 314 

" waiting for scouts 212-213 

1 ' with several queens 228 

" " two queens 222 

Sydserff's extravagance 251 

Syrian bees 2S9 

Syrup 320 

Taming bees 185 

Taxini on bees and grapes 507, 508 

Thanks to the writers 37 

Thickness of cells 99 

Thomson, quotations from 382, 408 

Thorax 21 

Ihorley on stupefying bees 277 

Three sections of body 3 

Tidd on the moth 459, 462, 466 

Tin cans for feeding 319 

Tin corners 156 

" vessels for honey 488 

" " " melting wax. . .499, f,00 

' ' roofs 172 

Toads 474 

Tongue 19,20 

Tools to extract honey ,437-439 

' ' to handle bees 188, 197, 304 

" to make hives 174 

" to transfer bees 300 

Top and bottom bars of frames 155 

Townley on mailing queens 311 

Trachea 30, 31 

Traps 84, 236 

" for moths 468 

Transferring colonies 297 

' * * * Heddon method 

of. .302 

" queen cells 263 

Transporting bees 313 

Uncapping ' 440 

" knives 440, 441 

Uniting colonies 249, 335 

Upper stories, see supers. 

Vandervort mill , ...37o 

" spur 375 

Van Deusen clamp 158 

Veil 190,191 

Ventilating 15S 

holes loo 

Ventilation 176 

'• controlled 165 

" in cellar 348 



INDEX. 



XIII 



Ventilation in winter 177, 337 

' ' to prevent swarming 225 

V when shipping 307 

Vertically divided hives 132 

Viallon experiments on comb-build- 
ing.. 101 

" on laying workers 75 

" on mailing queens 312 

Virgil description of the Italian bee. 282 

" mentions the bee-moth 458 

* on clipping the wings of 

queens. .221 

" on material for hives 173 

Virgin queens 47 

" introducing 277 

' ' rivalry of 48 

' ' voice of 49 

Wagner incident of swarming 213 

' ' on age of comb 224 

" onDzierzon 137, 138 

' • on egg-laying 44, 60 

' • on robbing 362 

' ' on success 136 

" on the Italian bee 286, 287 

'*' on the moth 468 

" patent on comb-founda- 
tion.. 367 

• * translation of Berlepsch 355 

'* " " Donhoff 

69, 464, 466 

Warm absorbents for Winter 337 

Warping boards 175 

Water for bees 126 

" as a remedy for stings 203 

' ' needed in Spring 354 

Wax 89 

" adulteration of 372 

" bleaching 501 

•' candles 502 

" chemical CDmposition of 101 

" cleaning 500 

' ' extractors 499 

' ' how produced 90 

" " many pounds of honey to 

produce. .101 

' ' made by young bees 90 

' " melting point of 371 

' ' not made of pollen 99 

' ' old bees can make wax. 91 

' ' pollen necessary to make 100 

'-' produced by eating 89, 91 

' ' residues of 5'K) 

" scales 89, 9<) 

*' '* who discovered the 93 

" " on the bottom-board 94 

" uses of 501 

Weigel recommends candy 320 

Weiss, first manufacturer of founda- 
tion in America 368 

Wildman en feeding 316 



Widman on the fcent of the queen. 279 

" on uniting 249 

" on yield 434 

Winds protection from 336, 337 

Wings 25 

" of queens, clipping 221 

Winter flight 339, 350 

' ' passages 332 

' ' protection 336 

Wintering bees 326 

best conditions for. ..344 

cellar for 346 

chaff hives for 341 

clamps for 350, 351 

cold repositories for. .352 

experiment on 328 

food for 329, 330 

in-doors 345 

mistakes in 328 

narrowing the space - 

for.. 331 
outer boxes for. .343, 344 



Workers . 



' ' agitated when the queen is 

removed. .259 

" balling queens 275 

" building 92 

• ' crippled 79 

" discharges of 28-31 

" Donhoff experiment on. . .66,67 
' ' duration of transformation 

of.. 88 

" eggs in drone cells 61 

" " to raise queens 45,253 

1 ' feeding the young 15 

" " " queen 17 

fertile 74,75 

" " how discovered 76 

" " use of 75 

' ' first flight of 67, 73 

' « functions of 66 

" larvae of 70 

" life 77 

" losing their queen 41 

•' love of. for their queen. 41, 311 

1 ' newly hatched 73 

" number of in a hive 66 

" sexual organs not de- 
veloped. . 74 

" signs of old age 79 

' ' trying to raise queens with 

drone eggs. .57, 76 

' * understand each other 76 

" ventilating 176 

" joung, build combs 68,90 

" " feed the brood 69 

Worms, see Moth . 

Yield, large 434, 435 

Zollickoffer account of a colonv on a 

"tree.. 21 3 

Zoubareff, uses of propolis 110 



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Scientific and Practical, 



F.' R. CHESHIRE, F.L.S., F. R. M. S. 



VOL. 1.— SCIENTIFIC. 

A complete treatise on the Anatomy and Physiology of the Hive 
Bee. Richly illustrated. Price, 7.6. 

VOL. II. -PRACTICAL. 

A thoroughly practical and carefully written work on Bee Man- 
agement. Profusely illustrated with wood engravings of all the 
newest and best bee appliances. Price 7.6. 

This work is at once the most exchaustive and the most recen 
that has been published on the subjet, giving the fullest particu- 
lars, in the plainest language, and bringing down its information 
to the present day. jSTo Bee-keeper can afford to be without it. 

London: L. UPCOTT GILL, 170 Strand, W. C. 

When answering above advertisement, mention this book. 



A. I. ROOT, 

PUBLISHER OF 

©teiilMi ^ Sit ffiittiMi 

A SEMI-MOXTHLY 

Of 36 pages, with a subscription-list of over 8,000. Each issue is 

handsomely illustrated with original engravings. Its corps 

of contributors comprises the most successful 

Bee-keepers from all parts of the world. 

Price, $1.00 Per Year. 




WE ARE ALSO DEALERS IN 

APIARIAN ♦ SUPPLIES 

BEES, HONEY, HIVES, ETC. 

We annually manufacture about 20,000 Hives, millions of Section 
Honey-Boxes, tons of Comb Foundation. Honey-Extractors, be- 
sides enormous quantities of Bee-Supplies in general. 



WE ARE ALSO PUBLISHERS OF THE 

A B C OF BEE CULTURE. 

A Cyclopedia of 400 pages. 

It is' handsomely illustrated with 300 engravings. It is written 

especially for beginners. The 37th thousand now out. 

Price, in cloth, $1.25, postpaid: in paper, SI. 00. 

Medina Co., A. I. ROOT. MEDINA, 0. 



Mention this Advertisement. 



34c. "W. O^RTST, 

Successor to Me. W. GARY & SON. 

One of the Oldest and Largest Breeders of Italian Bees 
in America, 

Will simply say that the first successful Importation of Italian 
Bees in I860, by S. B. Parsons of Flushing, Long Island, was en- 
trusted to my father's care through the influence of Mr. Lang- 
stroth. We have spared neither pains or money to procure the 
best stock in this and foreign countries and think we have as good 
stock as there is. Our facilities for purely mating our queens are 
unsurpassed. 

We are also the oldest and largest manufacturers of Bee-Keepers' 
Supplies in New England. Choice Comb Foundation and White 
Poplar Sections a specialty. Illustrated price list free. 

Address, Mc. W. CARY, 

[Coleraine, Franklin Co., Mass. 

When answering the above advertisement, mention this book. 

CANADA. 

H a td* @QQ2kS S@ OO., 

ALI, KINDS OF 

lli§»||§illi!i* llippi!S§§ 

SOLE DEALERS IN CANADA OF DADANT'S 
COMB FOUNDATION. 

Canadian Honey Producer " 

Monthly : June, July and August (3 months) for 10c. 
Send for Price List, free. Queens for Sale. 

WHEN ANSWERING THIS ADVERTISEMENT. MENTION THIS BOOK. 



of MT. VERNON, Linne Co., IOWA, 

Can Supply you with Choice 

ITALIAN QUEENS, 

BEES BY THE POUND 

And Standard and Improved 

BEE-KEEPERS' SUPPLIES. 

Packages of Bees and Brood with Queen a Specialty, 
and very cheap. 

NO " FOUL BROOD >' EVER KNOWN NEAR, 

In supplies the Adjustable Case and system for comb honey is 
not excelled. Send 5 one-cent stamps for pamphlet — " How to 
Raise ConiD Honey." Catalogues free. 

When answering above advertisement, mention this.book. 

C. W. COSTELLOW, 

Waterboro, York Ccu, Mais©* 

MANUFACTURER OF 

BEE HIVES, SECTIONS, CRATES, ETC. 

Am) DEALER IN A FULL LINE OF 

SUPPLIES FOR E3EBE5~K:E5ErF>ING, 

BEES, QIEEXS AND HONEY. 

Makes a Specialty of fine and accurate workmanship 

on wood work for tee-keeping. Send for free catalogue, and 
estimates. 

When answering above advertisement, mention this book. 

G. B. LEWIS & CO. 

WE MAKE THE BEST 

Bee-Hives, Sections, Shipping-Crates, 

FRAMES, ETO. 

jgggrWe sell them at the lowest prices. Write for free 
Illustrated Catalogue. 

O. B. LEWIS «& CO, Watertown, Wis. 

When answering the above advertisement, mention this book. 

LBAg'05 f 90 9" 



